Mechanical calculators {abacus, calculator}| can have columns of moveable beads on vertical rods, which go up or down for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing [-3000].
Magnets {compass, magnetic}| on pivots can point to north magnetic pole in north Canada.
metal mold, or cube whose sides have 1 to 6 dots {die, mold}|.
wood or plastic penis-like object {dildo}.
Rods {dipstick}| can indicate fluid levels in containers.
Rotating platforms {potter's wheel} can shape clay into round objects, like pots.
tray {salver}.
Above 50 meters per second in water, water pressure is low enough to allow water vapor to make vapor cavity around object {supercavitation, torpedo}, allowing high speed {torpedo}|.
Devices {transducer}| can convert energy from one form to another, such as from electrical energy to mechanical energy. Transducers include piezoelectric crystal, microphone, photoelectric cell, and read/write head.
Cans {can, tin} {tin can} can be steel with tin coating on inside. Machines seal side edge and tops by folding edges and squeezing them flat. They can make 300 cans per minute.
rectangular coffin, or small jewel case {casket}.
diamond-shaped box with flat ends {coffin}, to hold dead body.
Basket {hamper, container} can keep clothes.
V-shaped shoulder troughs {hod} can carry bricks or mortar.
Hollow shape {mold, tool} can receive poured liquid plastic or metal to harden.
People can carry wicker baskets {pannier} on back.
Cooking utensils {pot, cooking}| {pan, cooking} have bottoms that stay flat, have smooth finishes, and have round corners. Sides are vertical, except for omelet and crepe pans. Handles are lightweight wood or plastic.
material
Aluminum is light and heats evenly and quickly but must be thick. Steel is hard but heats slowly and unevenly. Cast iron is heavy, heats evenly but slowly, and can season. Copper is soft and heats evenly and quickly. Copper can be only on pot bottoms. Enamelware has enamel baked onto steel. Enamelware cleans easily but can chip. Earthenware can have glaze, heats slowly, and cleans easily but chips and cracks. Glassware heats slowly and cleans easily but can chip and crack. Glass {pyroceram} does not crack even under severe temperature changes.
Closed glass containers {terrarium} can hold plants.
kindling box {tinderbox}.
cup or bowl {vessel, container}.
money box {coffer}.
money drawer {till}.
Oval infant beds {bassinet} can have legs.
clothing and supplies {layette} for newborn.
hinged-top briefcase {attaché case}.
round box {bandbox}, for small clothing items.
small bag {ditty bag}.
large cloth bag {duffel bag}.
small trunk {footlocker}, or metal or plastic case with hinged lid.
large shoulder bag {haversack}.
back pack {knapsack}.
painting or drawing case {portfolio, case}.
Leather suitcases {portmanteau} can have a middle partition and two hinged sides.
large trunk {steamer trunk}.
small suitcase {valise}.
holder {caddie, container}.
Large bottle in a casing {carboy} can hold reactive liquid.
Fish can be in a salt or fresh water container {aquarium}.
Glass serving bottle {carafe, container} can be for wine or water.
barrel {cask}.
Water boilers with spigots {samovar} can make tea. Top holds concentrated tea in a small teapot.
Tables with hot water pans {steam table} can keep food dishes warm.
covered sewage pit {cesspool}.
Bowls {chamber pot} in bedrooms allow people not to have to leave bed to urinate or defecate.
spittoon {cuspidor}.
Metal cans {spittoon} can receive spit.
Ruled glass tubes {burette} {buret} have bottom taps, for titration. Burets measure volume. One buret drop equals 0.05 milliliter.
Tubes {pipette} can have pointed end to stick in fluid and opening at other end from which to suck, for transferring small liquid amounts. Pipettes measure volume. TC pipette lets fluid run out. TD pipette is for blowing out. Transfer pipettes and volumetric pipettes force aliquot out. Pipettes include measuring pipettes, Ostwald pipettes, micropipet, and lambda pipet. One lambda equals one microliter.
Rounded glass containers {retort} can heat chemicals.
Concave stone {mortar, container} holds something to crush with a pestle.
Oval stones {pestle} can crush something in mortars.
Electricity can have lower than normal voltage {brownout}|.
Incandescent bulb has wire {filament}| that resists electric current.
Metal strips {fuse}| that have low melting points melt if electric current gets too high. Short circuit or device that uses too much current {overload} causes high current.
If voltage becomes high enough, a spring {circuit breaker}| can open circuit.
Heaters {electric heat}| can use Nichrome wire to resist electric current flow and make heat.
Blankets {electric blanket}| can have thin insulated-wire networks. Wires are Nichrome.
Bread browners {toaster}| have Nichrome wire on sides, sometimes wound around thin mica sheets. Lowering toast starts electric current. Timer or thermostat holds toast down, until reaching time or temperature. Spring pops toast.
Nichrome heating elements have iron base and iron top, to toast both waffle sides {waffle iron}|.
Ovens {electric oven}| {oven, cooking} can have heating coils, or high-resistance conductors surrounded by insulators surrounded by metal, on bottom and at top {broiler, oven}. Electric-range burners use high-resistance conductor, surrounded by insulator, surrounded by metal, in a flat spiral.
drying, firing, or hardening oven {kiln}.
Irons {iron, steam} {steam iron}| can have a water tank with small holes. Water drips onto soleplate top to make steam, which comes out soleplate holes to wet and then dry clothes, so they appear smooth.
Irons have a heated flat bottom {soleplate}|.
Radar and microwave ovens have a vacuum tube {magnetron} in a magnetic field. Magnetic field rotates electron flow from hot cathode to anode. Rotation makes electron spokes that alternate on and off, at 2.45 gigahertz for microwave ovens, and resonate with an antenna that radiates microwaves.
Ovens {microwave oven}| can use very-high-frequency radio waves {radar wave}, from a magnetron, which heat food as water absorbs radiation. Radar waves reflect from metal, so oven stays cool. Paper and glass do not absorb radar waves much, so they stay cool. Food cooks evenly.
Variable resistors {memory resistor} {memristor}| can change electrical resistance when current changes (Leon Chua) [1971], so next time it has different resistance. For example, sending high current can set resistance high and sending low current can set resistance low. Later, moderate current encounters high or low resistance, like an ON-OFF switch and so like binary 1 or 0.
variable resistor {varistor}|.
Devices {switch, machine}| can turn current or voltage off or on.
types
Metal blade can slide into metal holder {knife switch}. Spring can make switch {snap action switch} stay in one position or the other. Snap switches can use a metal disc, which snaps from concave to convex. Half-filled tube of mercury liquid {mercury switch} can move from horizontal and closed to vertical and open. Switches can control one circuit {two-pole switch} or several circuits {multipole switch}.
circuit
Switches on stairs use a parallel circuit, and two different electrical paths can make switch be on.
safety
Perhaps, switches can be safe even when immersed. Such switches can be good in most appliances. Bakelite or other heat and current resistant, moldable material seals switch metal contacts. Wires to and from switch have watertight holders. Magnetism closes and opens switch, by moving throw inside Bakelite.
Switches can have locks to prevent young children from moving them.
Switches {relay}| can use a solenoid to open and close.
Switches {toggle switch}| can have levers.
Pushing a button can send current into an electromagnet to magnetize an iron core and attract an iron clapper {doorbell}|. Clapper movement breaks electric circuit, attraction ceases, and spring pulls clapper back to resting position. For continuous button press, circuit completes again. Clapper goes back and forth, striking bells. For doorbell chimes, iron core attaches to spring. Clapper hits one metal tube when pressing doorbell button and springs back to hit other tube upon releasing button.
Electric razors {electric razor}| have a thin perforated plate over rotating or oscillating blades, to scissor off hair that enters plate [1910].
Platforms {elevator, lift}| can raise and lower. Elevator cars ride in vertical guide rails.
hydraulic
Hydraulic elevators have small cages or closets at piston top, resting in cylinders filled with oil. Pump applies pressure to fluid to raise elevator and reduces pressure to lower elevator. Hydraulic elevators have speed of one floor per second.
electric
Electric elevators [1887] use an electric induction motor at top to pull cables through a pulley {sheave}. Elevator car hangs on one pulley side, and a large counterweight hangs from other side. Elevators have a brake. Switches just before floors tell electric motor to slow. Switches at floors tell motor to stop. Electric elevators allowed skyscrapers.
In moving stairs {escalator}|, separate stairs ride on two bottom wheels in a track and two top wheels in another track. The parallel tracks slope to keep stair level. At ends, a comb scoops out anything on stairs. Electric motor at stair tops connects by chain to chairs. Rubber belts loop over handrails.
Garage opening {garage opener}| can use a radio transmitter. Garage door has a radio receiver and an electric motor.
Holders {garbage disposal}|, with sharp-edged slats around lower edge, can use an impeller to crush garbage against slats. Garbage bits drain away in running cold water. Paper does not crush well. Do not grind paper, metal, and glass.
Iron trains can ride on magnetic fields on iron tracks, using repulsion from below or attraction from above {magneplane}|.
Machines {sewing machine}| can sew.
needle and thread
Sewing-machine needles have an eye three millimeters from point. Thread comes from spool, through tension control knob, through needle eye. Second thread comes from different spool {bobbin}, underneath needle and material.
process
Needle enters material and goes through to bobbin. Hook snags thread and loops thread around bobbin, to make lock stitch. As needle rises, lever {thread take-up lever} pulls thread tight. The lever also pulls a length of thread from spool. After needle leaves material, a rough plate rises from below, squeezes material between plate and needle guide plate above, and pushes material forward one stitch length.
On printing devices {plotter}|, paper can scroll past a pen vibrating from electric-current waves. Time axis is along scrolling direction, and amplitude axis is across paper.
Two metal strips, usually copper and chromium, can align side-by-side {thermostat}|. Temperature increase expands metals at different rates, and strip curls, moving a dial.
Telegraph systems {ticker}| can punch tape, or make similar electronic displays, to indicate stock prices and trades.
Devices {changer} {turntable}| {record player} can play one record at a time or automatically play a stack of records.
speeds
Records can turn at 16 2/3, 33 1/3, 45, or 78 revolutions per minute (rpm), to match speed at which master disc was cut.
needle
Needle holder {cartridge, record} is at one arm end, and needle rests in record groove. Pivot is on other arm {tonearm} end, for balance. Needles can be steel, sapphire, or diamond. Needle vibrates in groove and generates an electric signal.
Crystal or ceramic cartridges make electric signals by piezoelectric effect. Magnetic cartridges make electric signals by a magnet moving in a wire coil.
amplification
Wires carry signal to a device {preamplifier}, which reconverts signal to proper high and low frequency strength {equalization}, not needed for ceramic cartridges. Preamplifier has knobs to control loudness {volume control}, high frequencies {treble control}, low frequencies {bass control}, and loudness between two stereo speakers {balance, speaker}.
speaker
Amplifiers increase signal power and send signals to a solenoid connected to a paper cone {speaker, audio} {loudspeaker}. Speakers are typically the least-accurate music-system part, so they are the most-important part.
sound
Electrical-signal shape can change {sound, distortion}. High fidelity limits total distortion to less than 15%.
Sound-frequency range has a loudness range {frequency response}. Loudness is in decibels. A three-decibel difference doubles loudness. Humans can detect a one- decibel difference.
Adding machines {adding machine}| can be for adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and other algorithms. Adding machines have gears, which engage in sequences depending on selected numbers and functions.
Old calculating devices used mechanical gears and shafts to solve differential equations {differential analyzer}| [1830].
induction coil {spark coil}|.
Spark traverses air or dielectric {spark gap}| between two conductors.
To spark sparkplugs {magneto}|, a rotating magnet generates voltage.
Spinning cylinders {centrifuge}| can hold tubes with fluid, so denser parts sink to tube bottom.
Centrifuges {ultracentrifuge}| can spin at 100,000 rpm.
Dish washing machines {dishwasher}| can use spinning hot-water jets to splash dish racks.
Machines {washing machine}| can have a tub within a tub. Water enters outer tub until timer switches water off, or float-control rises enough, to close inlet valve. Motor attaches to finned central piece {agitator, washer}. Agitator turns back and forth, using a linkage. Electric timer controls wash-rinse-spin cycle, which uses a camshaft and cams to depress switches. A pump drains water from tub.
Fans {propeller-type fan} can cut air at an angle and push a spiral air wedge straight in front of fan blade. Propeller fans {fan} can move back and forth, using a crank linked to motor. Fans {centrifugal fan} can use a paddle wheel {impeller} in a casing, pull air in at center, and push air out straight.
To compress {compressor, air}| {air compressor}, a pump fans air into a sealed tank, thus building pressure. Sealing pump and fan prevents leaking air.
To dry clothes {dryer}|, a large drum turns on side using an electric motor, while a fan blows heat from gas flame or electric coils through drum holes. Air goes out exhaust flue, through filter to catch lint. For exhaust that must stay inside building, cold water pipes receive exhaust, and water and lint condense on pipes and drain away together.
To dry hair {hair dryer}|, an electric motor runs a fan that blows air over heater-coil Nichrome wire.
To sweep {vacuum cleaner}|, a fan causes vacuum, which sucks up dust into a filter.
Small propellers can suck liquid down, drawing air and food into turning blades {blender}|. Sealed propeller shaft prevents leaking.
Household machines {mixer, machine}| {electric mixer} can use two beaters turned by an electric motor. Beaters cross each other's path, without touching, and suck air into turning liquid.
Machines {alternator}|, opposite of generators, can create direct current.
generator {dynamo}|.
Metal rings {slip ring}| can have alternating conducting and insulating regions and transfer electricity to or from rotor in alternators and motors.
Moving-belt friction can create static electricity of more than one hundred thousand volts {van de Graaf generator}|.
In cooling devices {air conditioner}|, a pump {compressor, air conditioner} compresses hot Freon or other easily liquefied gas. As fan blows air from outside, or water, goes, over small tubes, gas cools, and so liquefies. Then liquid goes through a tiny opening {constriction}, causing gas to expand and thus cool. Cool gas passes through tubing coils, through which fan blows room air. Room air heat passes to cool gas, which then compresses to start cycle again. Air conditioners have ratings, in British Thermal Units (BTU), of how much heat they can remove from air.
Refrigerators {freezer}| can be colder.
Cooling devices {refrigerator}| can remove heat from inside a box. Refrigerators use a gas, such as Freon, which easily liquefies with pressure. The liquefied gas in tubes inside box absorbs heat and expands. Machines {compressor, refrigerator} can compress hot gas back to liquid and send liquid through tubes outside box. A blower blows air over tubes to remove heat.
Inertia of freely mounted gyroscopes {guidance system}| preserves space orientation and so moving-object coordinates. Computers can use the reference coordinates to control object position and motion in space.
Machines {pacemaker device}| can be implants near heart and provide regular signals to heart muscles, helping ensure regular heartbeats.
In particle accelerators, chambers {resonator}| have oscillating electromagnetic fields to accelerate particles.
At automatic telephone exchanges {switchboard}|, dial signals activate switches that create a circuit between dialing and dialed telephones. At manual telephone exchanges, operator operates switches.
Machines {teletype}| can receive electronic signals and type automatically, and can send electronic signals after people type.
Electronic devices {amplifier}| {vacuum tube} {electron tube} can increase electric current.
tube
Vacuum tubes have a cathode emitter, anode collector, and zero to three positively charged screens. As it heats, cathode emits electrons {thermionic emission, amplifier}. Anode attracts electrons. Electric current flows from cathode to anode. Positive-charge electrodes {grid, vacuum tube} between cathode and anode attract electrons, to increase signal strength. Electric-signal wave frequencies do not change. Only amplitude increases.
solid state
Solid state transistor amplifiers have negative electrode transmitter and positive cathode collector, with positive electrode base between them. Current flows from transmitter to collector, as base attracts electrons, amplifying current.
The same vacuum tube or transistor {regenerative receiver}| can amplify an electric signal many times.
When ultraviolet light strikes a metal plate {ionizer}|, electrons leave and can ionize other molecules. Alps Mountains and radioactive spas naturally have negative ions. People suppose that negative ions promote health, and positive ions result in fatigue, headache, dizziness, and respiratory problems.
Cells {solar cell}| can have materials that transform light into electricity directly, with ten percent efficiency. Solar cells cannot store energy.
Alarms {burglar alarm} can use ultraviolet light, which reflects from windows and doors. If reflectors move, light-path interruption sounds alarm.
Door sensors {electric eye}| can use a collimated light source on one side and a vacuum tube {phototube} on other side. Tube has a half-cylinder plate {cathode, electric eye} that emits electrons when light hits. Electrons travel to other electrode {anode, electric eye}. Breaking light path signals a relay to open door.
Lasers {maser}| can use microwaves.
cathode-ray tube, or filmed TV program {kinescope}.
In an old process {orthicon}|, light hits a surface to emit electrons, electrons focus on a target, and target emits electrons that carry image signal from camera to television set.
Machines {radar}| can use a magnetron to emit radio waves and then receive wave reflections, to determine speed and position by Doppler effect.
Antennas {radio frequency identification tags}| (RFID) attached to circuits can activate by magnetism or radio waves. RFID are in tollbooth signalers and security systems, to identify. In low-frequency systems activated by magnetism, circuit resistance becomes high or low by turning transistor on and off, generating a magnetic field in tag {load modulation}. In high-frequency systems activated by radio waves, turning transistor on and off causes tag dipole antenna to reflect or absorb radio waves {backscatter modulation}.
Receivers {radio, machine}| can convert electromagnetic radio waves with frequency range near 10^-6 Hz to electric current. Radio waves carry sound information in frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation (AM). An adjustable LC circuit {tuner} selects radio-station frequency. A circuit {filter, electronic} removes radio-station carrier frequency and leaves sound vibrations that ride on carrier wave {demodulation}. A tube or transistor amplifier increases amplitude. Speakers change electric current into sound, by vibrating an inductance coil attached to a paper cone.
Devices {television}| can display pictures and sound.
parts
A glass vacuum cathode-ray tube has an electron emitter {electron gun} at pointed end and a flat front surface coated by chemicals {phosphor} that glow after being struck by electrons.
scanning
Electromagnets outside tube direct electron paths horizontally and vertically. A single electron beam moves row by row across screen and covers whole screen once every 1/30th second.
brightness
A positive electrode controls electron stream from electron gun. Beam can be more or less to make picture lighter or darker {brightness control}. Another positive electrode {contrast control} controls difference between light and dark areas.
controls
Side electromagnets can shift picture horizontally {horizontal control} or vertically {vertical control}.
synchronization
TV signals contain synchronizing signals, so TV cameras and home TVs sweep scene at same rate. TV sound is broadcast separately from picture on FM radio.
frequency
TV has higher frequencies than radio: very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high frequency (UHF).
Elograph (George Samuel Hurst) had electrically sensing coordinates on a computer screen {touch screen}| [1971]. Screens later had a transparent surface [1974]. Today, screens use five-wire resistive [1977], surface acoustic wave, or capacitive technology.
To make images {vidicon}|, an electron beam can scan an image to find point intensities.
Small speakers {earphone, speaker}| have electric-current waves that vibrate a thin plastic disc using piezoelectricity.
Receivers {microphone}| can change sound to electric current. In some microphones {ceramic microphone}, sound pressure makes voltage in a crystal {piezoelectric effect}. In some microphones {dynamic microphone}, sound pressure moves a magnet unidirectionally or omnidirectionally in a magnetic field.
Dropping a nickel into a machine {nickelodeon}| can select a record, put it on a record player, and start the record player.
To make sound-system media {records}, microphones can detect sound and make voltage changes that cause a pointed needle to vibrate sideways and cut a plastic disc {recording music}. Plastic discs are soft wax-like material and turn like a record as needle vibrates. Signals can make larger groove widths for high frequencies and smaller groove widths for low frequencies. Machine uses plastic disc to make a metal mold {master}. A press pushes soft vinyl into mold to make a disc.
TV remote controls {remote control}| use ultrasound tuning forks at 40,000 Hz. TVs have a microphone to convert sound waves to electric-current waves.
Machines {sonar, detector}| can emit sound waves and receive wave reflections, to determine speed and position by Doppler effect.
Electric voltage and current waves can go to a solenoid connected to a paper cone {speaker, electronics}|. Waves vibrate solenoid, and vibrations vibrate paper cone to generate sound. Speakers {bass reflex speaker} can have compartments, with a hole to outside. Speakers {air suspension speaker} can be airtight. Speakers {reflecting speaker} can send sound straight in front and reflect sound off walls. Speakers can be for bass {woofer}, middle {mid-range}, and high {tweeter} frequencies.
Telephone speakers {squawk box}| can be on trading floors to alert brokers.
To record sound {stereo system}| with spatial effects, two microphones, two meters apart, record on two tracks. Two speakers, two meters apart, play back sounds recorded by microphones. Input signal can come from record-player vibrating needle, laser light reflecting from CD, or changing magnetic field from tape-recorder tape head.
Cellulose acetate or Mylar ribbon {videotape} {audiotape} has an iron-oxide or cobalt-oxide coating. Ribbon passes over an electromagnet {magnetic head} {head, tape recorder}, of size 10^-3 square inches, at 1 7/8, 3 3/4, 7 1/2, or 15 inches per second. Recording head uses magnetic field to change coating magnetism pattern on tape {tape recorder}|. Tape magnetism pattern induces a magnetic field in receiving head, which makes an electric current. Demagnetizing heads use a random magnetic field to erase tape.
Devices {telephone}| can receive and transmit human speech sounds. After two telephones are on a circuit, direct current from telephone-central-office batteries flows through circuit.
microphone
Microphones {mouthpiece, telephone} can be a round box filled with powdered carbon, covered by a flexible diaphragm. Sound compresses diaphragm and carbon, to change carbon electrical resistance and make waves in electric direct current.
speaker
Speakers {earphone, telephone} can have an electromagnet and metal diaphragm, which current waves vibrate.
wire
Telephones use three wires: one to electrical ground, one for telephone line, and one for ringing line.
dialing
Dialing telephones activates relay switches that select correct wire pair to connect to dialing telephone. Dialing then activates ringing circuit. When other telephone answers, telephone-line circuit is complete. If other telephone line is already in use, the dialing process sends a busy signal.
People talk and listen at a telephone combined microphone and speaker {receiver, telephone}.
Compression algorithms {vocoder}| {voder} can make voice sounds into coded signals.
Calculators {calculator}| {electronic calculator} can be for adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and other algorithms. Electronic calculators store binary numbers in diodes in electric circuits. Arithmetic operations select different circuits to process signals.
Calculators use a metal-oxide semiconductor chip with 28 terminals, four for keyboard, eight for display, eleven for scan lines, one for clock, and three for power.
A timing mechanism at 250,000 cycles per second synchronizes input from display and keyboard, using scan lines. Diodes and keyboard functions can only activate if scan line is on.
Programs can control switching devices {computer}|. Computers are general symbol manipulator.
parts
Computers have a clock, display or printer, registers, adder-subtractor, controller, and program reader. Registers are for display, operand, accumulator, flag, address, and instructions.
functions
Computers have memory, workspace for results {accumulator}, workspace for instructions {instruction register}, arithmetic functions, functions for moving data to and from memory, and logical functions. Computers {von Neumann machine} can perform serial operations using functions, instructions, and accumulator. Serial von Neumann machines can simulate parallel operations, and vice versa.
Machines can duplicate critical functions, have self-repairing abilities, use distributed processing, have independent modules with limited interactions, and use a hierarchy from low-level functions to one high-level function.
error
Computers can have failures {glitch} with unknown causes, usually in flip-flop circuits. Computers can fail to work {down, computer}.
process
Computers can receive physical stimuli and code, store, retrieve, and transform information {computation} {information processing}. Storing and transferring algorithms have timed steps in sequence, typically with logical branches. Algorithms typically have "IF A, THEN B" statements. Computer determines if A is true and then performs B. Algorithms typically have loops: FOR i FROM m TO n, DO x. If value of i is between m and n, computer performs x. That operation changes i. Then computer checks value of i again. Algorithms perform reasoning, mathematical operations, and language processing. They can output information as scripts, images, lists, or tables.
coding
Digital computers typically store and transfer information as positions that can have one of two states {binary coding}.
Computers {digital computer}| can use electronic circuits to perform algorithms on numbers, using electrical binary codes to represent numbers and logical operations. ENIAC was first digital computer [1946].
Computers can perform more than one process simultaneously {hybrid technology multithreaded}| (HTMT).
Entangling many particle states allows solving factoring and other iterative problems {quantum computing}|. Light or particle wave superposition and interference can extract features, as in holograms and database queries.
topology
Topological quantum computing involves topological qubits. Paired excitations in a two-dimensional electron gas {anyon} have world lines that can braid to change topological properties. Knot invariants and quantum two-dimensional surface evolution over time are equivalent. In three dimensions, particles must be fermions, whose wave functions invert when fermion pairs interchange, or bosons, whose wave functions do not change when boson pairs interchange. In two dimensions, particle wave functions can show complex phases when particle pairs interchange. Spin interchanges can be clockwise or counterclockwise. If interchange results in same state, change is Abelian. Topological quantum computing must be non-Abelian to make distinct braids.
Thermal effects can create extra anyons, so temperature must be near 0 K. Larger computers can keep anyon pairs farther apart and at longer distances, to reduce spurious interactions.
Nanometer-size semiconductor crystals {quantum dot}| can change size or properties.
Memories {read-only memory}| (ROM) can stay constant and be only for input.
timer {totalizer}|.
Code in cables can be in a large frequency range {broadband}|.
Two nearby wires can exchange signals {cross talk}|.
Demagnetizing {degaussing}| randomly aligns magnetic fields.
Amplifiers can increase current or voltage {gain}|.
Sound systems can have less than 15% distortion {high fidelity}| {hi fi}.
Interfaces between metal and semiconductor have resistance {Schottky barrier}|, when voltage forces electrons into semiconductor from wire.
Code can be in a large frequency range {wideband}|. Systems {wideband code-division multiple-access} (WCDMA) can divide code into streams and send directional signals.
Wireless transmission {wi-fi}| can be digital.
Broadband information channels {wireless broadband}| can carry megabytes of information per second. Wireless uses 802.11 technology.
Signal channels can have different-wavelength signals {multiplexing, electronics}.
Two radio signals at different frequencies can mix to make a beat frequency {heterodyne}|, for amplitude modulation.
Edwin Armstrong [1918] invented a Supersonic Heterodyne Receiver to convert a selected radio frequency, for amplification and filtering {superheterodyne}| {superhet}.
Optical channels can have different-wavelength signals {wave division multiplexing}| (WDM).
Electronic number displays {field-effect liquid crystal}| can use crystals that are transparent or opaque if unpolarized or polarized by applied electric field.
Electronic number displays {interferometric modulator}| (IMOD) can use two mirrors that can vary separation and so cause constructive interference at one color.
Microscopic wires {nanowire}| can be erbium silicide or titanium. A right-left wire layer can be over an up-down wire layer {cross bar memory}. At intersections is a rotaxane monolayer, which changes resistance at high positive or negative voltage, used to write memory, and maintains resistance at intermediate voltages, used to read memory. Nanowires can make field-effect transistors. Silver-sulfide ions can act as switches. Ferroelectric thin films can move defects. Molecules can make transistors for single electrons. Nanowires can oxidize and reduce.
Wires guide electric waves, and optical fibers {waveguide}| can guide light waves.
Small silicon wafers {chip} {integrated circuit}| can have etched circuits of semiconductor transistors, resisters, capacitors, and diodes. Number of transistors doubles every one and a half to two years {Moore's Law}.
Integrated circuits {application-specific integrated circuit}| (ASIC) can have fixed logic blocks programmed in one configuration.
Light processing {digital light processing}| (DLP) can use a chip with thousands of micromirrors, to deflect colored light from a spinning color wheel.
Integrated circuits {field-programmable gate array}| (FPGA) can have programmable logic blocks.
Machines {microelectromechanical system} (MEMS) can have small mechanical and electronic parts. Silicon cells can move surfaces electrically.
Transistors {nanofluidic transistor}| can control ion flow in microscopic silica tubes.
Boards {printed circuit}| can have copper conducting pathways on one side and holes into which to solder circuit elements to conductor on other side. Film emulsion can cover board, negative of desired pattern goes on, camera photographs board, and negative develops. Silver is on conductor pathways. Electroplating puts copper on board.
Board can have a copper layer and a film emulsion that resists acid. Negative goes on, camera photographs board, and negative develops. Acid etches copper away. Then emulsion washes away, leaving copper pathways.
Memory and logic can be on same chip {processor-in-memory}|.
Chips {thin-film integrated circuit}| can have small lasers, prisms, lenses, and switches to move light instead of electrons. More information can travel in light than in electrons, because light frequency is 10,000 greater than electron current frequency.
Materials {sink}| can absorb heat or electrons. Kitchens and bathrooms have basins to receive running water.
Large metal masses {heat sink}| can absorb heat.
vacuum tube or transistor {triode}|.
Electronic number displays can use small cathode-ray tubes {vacuum fluorescent tube}|.
Valves {choke}| can allow more gasoline into engines at startup.
Engines can have removable covers {cowling}|.
After engine turns off, last burning fuel can exit in exhaust {flameout}|.
A heavy wheel {flywheel, inertia}| can connect to an axle or crankshaft, spread power bursts in engine, and store energy. Most mass is on outer rim.
In first phase {intake}, piston goes down to cause vacuum and draws mixture into cylinder through intake valve. In second phase {compression phase}, piston compresses gases as it goes up. In third phase {ignition and expansion}, spark plug fires, and gases burn and expand to push piston down. In fourth phase {exhaust phase}, piston forces exhaust gases out exhaust valve as piston comes back up. Then the four phases repeat {Otto cycle}.
Engines can have a fan {supercharger}| that blows air and/or fuel into cylinders, rather than delivering fuel only by suction.
Exhaust-control devices {thermal reactor} can reduce hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning.
Engine governors or processes turn device on or off to maintain safe conditions {fail-safe}|.
Devices {governor, machine}| can regulate steam-engine rotation velocity.
Engines {reciprocating piston engine} {engine} can have pistons that move up and down in cylinders. Fuel is gasoline, kerosene, methanol, natural gas, or hydrogen.
External combustion engines {external combustion engine}| {Stirling engine} can use two pistons at ends of one cylinder. Stationary fine-metal heat exchanger {regenerator, heat} cycles heat between pistons. Combustion supplies heat to heat exchanger, to expand vapor. Colder-side piston forces vapor through regenerator, to expand vapor and push other piston. Other piston then becomes colder piston, and cycle repeats. Stirling engines are more efficient than steam engines.
Engines {internal combustion engine}| can burn fuel inside cylinders. Fuel goes from fuel tank into a chamber {carburetor}, where it mixes with air. Piston engines use Otto cycle. Piston engines have four, six, eight, or twelve cylinders.
Combustion can create ionized gas, which flows past wire coils to magnetically create electrical current {magnetohydrodynamics}| (MHD).
Internal combustion engines {rotary engine}| {Wankel engine} can have three chambers in a cylinder and a rotary piston. Chambers use Otto cycle. Rotor is on an eccentric shaft. Cooling elements are at rotor tips.
External combustion engines {steam engine}| can continually burn fuel in an open chamber to heat water into vapor. Expanding vapor enters a cylinder and pushes piston, which connects to crankshaft. Force rotates crankshaft, and crankshaft returns piston to cylinder top, to start cycle again {reciprocating piston}.
Engines can have auxiliary burning places for compressed gases {stratified charge engine}.
Locomotives {traction engine}| can operate off tracks.
Machines {turbine}| can have rotating blades turned by falling water or fuel combustion.
Steam from boiler can spin turbine blades {steam turbine}|.
Internal combustion engines {diesel engine}| can have no spark plugs and no carburetor. Fuel squirts into cylinder {fuel injection}. Compression is so high that fuel ignites without spark. Diesel engines use Otto cycle.
Premixed fuel and air can explode by pressure in low-temperature, clean-burning internal-combustion diesel engine {homogeneous-charge compression-ignition engine} {HCCI engine}.
Repeated internal combustion bursts can push out hot gas {pulsejet engine}|.
Jet engines have a second combustion chamber {afterburner}|, where remaining fuel burns.
In jet engines {gas turbine}| {jet engine}, burning gas can expand through many thin-bladed propellers {vane, propeller} {propeller vane}, to rotate shaft. Shaft rotates fans to pull in air to mix with fuel. Gases leave through engine rear {exhaust manifold, gas turbine}.
Jet or rocket engines {reaction engine}| can emit high-speed gases backward.
Turbojet engines {ramjet engine}|, with no compressor or turbine, can use only air from forward motion.
Ramjet engines can operate only at supersonic speeds {scramjet}.
Chamber burns oxygen and fuel mixture and sends hot gas out small opening in rear to propel object {rocket}| forward.
Rockets {retrorocket}| can fire in opposite direction to slow object.
Two engine-shaft cranks can connect {draglink}| {drag link}, so they turn together.
Piston connects to crankshaft by metal rod {piston rod}|.
Internal-combustion-engine lever {rocker arm}| pushes valve.
Devices {crankshaft}| can convert back-and-forth motion into rotary motion, opposite of pitman.
Devices {pitman}| can convert rotary motion into back-and-forth motion, opposite of crankshaft.
Engines can emit metallic taps {knock, engine}| if they fire too early or late.
Engines can emit metallic rings {ping}| if fuel is too volatile so it fires too early.
Gears {transmission}| can exchange power for distance or distance for power. Engines have highest power at 3000 to 4000 revolutions per minute.
Transmissions {automatic transmission}| can shift automatically after reaching specific speeds. In park, wheels lock. In neutral, automatic clutch does not engage. Forward gears can be low, drive 1, drive 2, drive 3, and overdrive. Reverse gear is the same as low gear but goes backward.
Devices {clutch}| can engage and disengage transmissions. A foot pedal connected to a spring presses discs {clutch plate} against a crankshaft extension that also has plates. Pedal depression overcomes spring, and plates move apart. Automatic transmissions have a fluid clutch, inside transmission.
Drive shaft goes to bevel gears {differential, transmission}|, which can have different ratios as wheels turn corners, to prevent tire squealing and control loss. The five bevel gears are: one for axle halves, one on drive shaft end, one large free spinning gear touching other gears, and one gear parallel to axle and attached to large gear and axle gears. Gear parallel to axle is stationary when moving straight-ahead but turns while turning, so one half-axle can rotate more than other half-axle. Differentials {limited slip differential} can allow only some turning and then disengage.
Transmissions {manual transmission}| can have gears on drive shaft and gears on engine shaft. When clutch is in, drive-shaft gears can slide over engine-shaft gears to select power-distance ratio, which is close to 1:1 for first gear and 1:4 for highest gear.
Transmissions can have a gear {overdrive}| with high ratio, to allow better gas mileage at higher speeds.
Frame rods {tie rod}| can transmit tension. Tie rods transmit motion to front axles of front-wheel-drive automobiles.
Automatic transmissions have barriers {stator, barrier} that point fluid at output rotor to increase torque {torque converter}| but decrease rotation and add heat.
To stop car {brake, vehicle}|, an asbestos pad rubs against a metal disk {disc brake} or cylinder {drum brake}. Brake pedal pushes piston into cylinder {master cylinder}, forcing oil {brake fluid} into tubes to wheels. Tube ends at wheels have a small piston in a cylinder. Piston connects to a brake part {brake shoe} that holds the pad. Pressure forces shoe against brake drum or disc.
Surface-mining excavators {dragline}| remove soil and rock over mineral deposits {overburden}, using buckets on booms.
Drills {drill press}| can use pressure and tip cutters, to make holes.
tools, equipment, fasteners, and materials {hardware}.
soil pulverizer and/or smoother {harrow}|.
ridge grid {hatching}|.
Cones {megaphone} can direct and amplify voice.
Space vehicles that return to Earth have a front heat shield {nose cone}|.
A heavy weight can drop {pile driver}|, to force a rod into ground.
Metal spikes {piton}| can have an eye to attach rope.
A weight {plumb bob} can hang by string from a point, to measure vertical.
iron or rope ring {quoit}.
Parachutes have a rope {ripcord}|, pulled to open parachute.
Devices {servomechanism}| can be part of feedback loops, so machines automatically adjust or turn on or off.
Protective coverings {sheathing, cover}| can be around or over objects or buildings.
cloth rows {shirring}.
Vehicles have pistons in tubes that push oil through small openings to dampen motion {shock absorber}|.
Machines {stenotype}| can have special keyboards for stenographers, such as court reporters or closed captioners, to type shorthand.
Devices can have subdevices {subassembly}|.
Bridges {suspension bridge}| can use two tall towers as posts. Giant cables, woven with many steel wires, go from one side, over first post, down to middle, up over second post, and down to other side. Straight cables hang from the giant cables to hold roadway.
Boards can have groove on one board edge and ridge on other edge {tongue and groove}| {dressed and matched}, so tongue and groove mesh, as in hardwood floors.
Roadway pressure-sensitive stripes {treadle}| count number of vehicle axles and speed and direction.
Ultrasound waves cause fluid compaction and rarefaction {cavitation, cleaning}, which cleans objects by pressure {ultrasonic cleaner}|.
Scales can have a small movable scale {vernier}| that slides along main scale and indicates fractions.
small mechanical device or controller {gadget} {widget}.
Presses {winepress}| can crush grapes under cool pressure, to obtain juice.
grinding {milling}.
joining pipes {pipefitting}|.
hammering {forging}|.
Falling drop forge half-die hits hot metal in stationary anvil half-die {drop forging}|, to make crankshafts, axles, and other large items.
Upright cylinders {churn}| can hold cream, and turning or raising and lowering a paddle makes butter or buttermilk.
A rough metal wheel scrapes against flint {cigarette lighter}|. The spark created lights lighter fluid or compressed butane. A glass fiber wick sucks lighter fluid. Compressed butane expands and vaporizes through tiny hole.
Draw curtains {curtain}| can use one string loop {drapery pull}. String lies in traverse rods. Loop attaches to right-hand curtain at top left and attaches to left-hand curtain at top right. Loop goes around pulley at curtain ends. Curtain hangs from holders in sliding rod. First holder pushes other holders back when curtain opens and spreads other holders out when curtain closes.
A forked stick {divining rod} can be for locating underground water sources.
Rulers {ferule} can strike children.
rocking horse {hobbyhorse}.
Braided necklaces {lanyard} can be for hanging a key or whistle.
Instruments {metronome}| can sound a frequency.
Babies can suck small rubber bulbs {pacifier}.
Razors {razor}| {straight razor} can have a blade with concave sides {hollow ground edge}. Leather straps {strop} can smooth edges. Razors {safety razor} can have plastic bars, which rest on face to prevent blade from gouging skin.
protective goggles {safety glasses}|.
Shoe-shaped inserts {shoetree} can stretch shoes.
Feathers {shoofly} can blow away flies.
A logarithmic scale on a moving piece can move past a logarithmic scale on a stationary piece {slide rule}|, to add exponents to perform multiplications or multiply exponents to raise numbers to power.
Metal cones {snuffer}| on rods can extinguish candles.
walking pole {staff, pole}.
Bottles {Thermos bottle}| can have two glass layers, with vacuum between. Glass layers have silvered surfaces facing each other, to reflect heat. Glass bottle attaches to container with rubber supports. Foam rubber, or plastic with many small compartments, is in ice buckets, refrigerators, and freezers.
Cylindrical cones {thimble}| can have textured tops and push needles through cloth.
Conveyor belts {treadmill}| can roll as people walk.
Metal forks {tuning fork}, with two long tines, can resonate at one frequency.
Devices {typewriter}| can print letters.
roller
A roller {platen} can rotate to move paper forward and back. Roller can slide back and forth, to allow typing anywhere on line.
process
When a key depresses, a lever moves type bar onto paper on platen. Shift key raises or lowers type bar to allow uppercase or lowercase letters to strike. Levers have angles so keys hit at same position. Depressing a key can rotate a wheel of raised letters into position for a hammer to strike from behind. Depressing a key can rotate a ball of raised letters into position for pressing against platen.
slide
When type bar, wheel, or ball returns to normal position, it hits a release lever that springs platen one space to right.
A movable plate can squeeze against a stationary plate {vise}|, to hold object.
Ridged boards {washboard}, can rub clothes when washing.
Slide fasteners {zipper}| [1890 to 1913] can have sliders that guide hooks into each other, at bottom. Slider top goes over zipper ribs, on hook outer edges, to line up hooks on inside.
Velcro uses two tapes {Velcro zipper}|. One tape has many small plastic hooks. The other tape has loops.
Anthracite coal subjected to high electric current makes soft carbon graphite. Graphite mixed with water and clay goes through holes in a steel plate. An oven dries and bakes the graphite rods. Machines apply wood covers {pencil, writing}|.
To sharpen pencils {pencil sharpener}|, hold pencil by hand or pincers in a tube. Handle goes to wheel with gear teeth inside and with tube to hold pencil. Two rollers are on opposite tube sides, in a V shape, with point at handle end. Rollers have gears that engage wheel. As handle turns, rollers and tube rotate. Helical edges on rollers peel off a thin wood layer.
Flat surfaces at angles to horizontal {inclined plane}| can allow lifting loads over longer distances, instead of straight up, requiring less force. Inclined-plane angle is in degrees or is ratio of height above horizontal to distance along horizontal.
Inclined planes can wind around axes {screw}|. Most screws are right-handed and screw in clockwise.
Helices {corkscrew}| can screw into corks. A lever pushes down on bottle top to pull out cork.
Bars {lever}| can apply force to a point at one end, using movement over long distance at other end. Bar rotates around bar point {fulcrum} near force end, where it contacts a fixed object. Crowbars are levers.
Long rods or structures {boom, crane}| can hold loads.
Bridges can use two large triangular, or diamond-shaped, steel frameworks {cantilever}|. Cantilevers balance on posts. Frameworks meet at bridge center.
Bars {crowbar}| {wrecking bar} can have wedges at one end and hooks with a claw foot at other end.
Balances {scale, weighing} {balance, scale}| can have V-shaped or horizontal beams, with pivot points at center and two pans at ends {weighing, scale}. Scales {pendulum scale} can pull against a pair of weighted pendulums. Balances {pan balance} can have pans. Balances {steelyard} can have one pan and a movable weight {poise, balance}, which can slide along a horizontal arm. Balances {platform weigher} can allow object to be anywhere on platform, because platform parallel linkage always keeps platform horizontal. Platforms can be on springs or have a steelyard.
Simple locks {lock} {lock and key}|, for chests or cases, have a keyhole and a key that looks like a little flag {key, lock}. When flag turns 360 degrees in lock, flag pushes a pin that slides a bolt in or out.
Door locks can use a key with blade ridges and slots on blade sides. Lock has a barrel. In lock barrel and wall are five small rods {pin} on springs in vertical tubes. Pins have two pieces, at different heights corresponding to ridges on key blade. When key is in lock, dividing lines for pins are at same radius as barrel radius, so barrel can turn. Barrel turn moves a bolt.
Locks {combination lock}| can have three discs. First disc connects to a knob and has a protrusion. The protrusion hits a protrusion on second disc, which has a protrusion that hits third-disc protrusion. Turning knob, to turn first disc two complete clockwise turns, engages the three discs. At first number, knob stops and turns counter-clockwise. Only first disc moves. After complete turn, second disc engages again. At second number, knob stops and turns clockwise. Only first disc moves. At third number, first disc stops and disc notches align. Bolt can slide past disc edges.
ankle cuff or chain {fetter}.
handcuff {manacle}.
Door locks {night latch}| can have an inside knob and an outside keyhole.
drill or sail structure and machinery {rig, structure}|.
holder {gig, holder}|.
A rod or shaft {bearing, machine}| can turn in a sleeve full of oil. Lubricated-for-life bearings use a porous bronze sleeve soaked with oil and sealed to keep out dirt and prevent oil evaporation.
Two metal rollers {calender}| can squeeze together plies or texture coverings.
Pear-shaped rollers {cam}|, pushing on rods, can raise and lower rods.
A toothed wheel goes under can rim {can opener}|. Knife-edge or wheel cuts just next to top rim. Two arms squeeze knife-edge toward toothed wheel.
Cylindrical holders {carousel}| can rotate horizontally.
Tools can have a handle {crank, machine}| at one end and holder at other, to allow turning wheel.
Reels {fishing reel}| can have a spool for line, with a handle to turn spool and a guide to lay line down evenly on spool. A knob can let spool spin freely without turning handle or can brake and lock spool. Fishing reels {spinning reel} can have a fixed spool with axis pointing along rod toward fish. A guide {bail, fishing reel} on cup surrounding spool goes around spool, laying down line. Enclosed spools can have a hole in front.
Wheels can have an inner ridge {flange}|, to prevent wheel from falling off track.
Fasteners {hinge}| can rotate around an axis or pin {hinge pin}. Hinge sides {leaf, hinge} can attach on door or jamb outside surface {surface hinge} or on door or jamb edge {mortise hinge}. Hinge pin can insert into holes {knuckle, hinge}. Leaf with more knuckles is on hinge stationary part. Hinges {loose hinge} can allow one leaf to slide off pin of other leaf. Hinges {piano hinge} can have a permanent pin with two leaves that can meet parallel and flat.
To cut grass {lawn mower}|, hand lawn mowers {reel-type mower} have metal bar {cutting bar} at grass level and four helical reel blades, which scissor grass on cutting bar as reel turns with rolling wheels. Motorized mowers {rotary blade lawn mower} have two-blade propeller at ground level, which spins rapidly, sucks grass straight up, chops grass, and blows grass out. Slip clutch allows motor to keep spinning if blade becomes stuck. Motorized mowers start by pulling cord to spin motor crankshaft.
Wheels {ratchet wheel}| can have angled teeth, typically with pawl engaged in tooth, pressed down by spring. Oscillations in both directions turn into intermittent angular motion in one direction. If spring and pawl have higher temperature than rotor, ratchet tends to go backwards. Perhaps, muscle contraction involves linear ratchet effect.
Tools {sector tool}| can have two arms, with pivot at end, and be for numerical calculations, in same way as nomogram.
Rods {spit}| can hold an animal over coals to cook, and a handle can turn the rod.
Balances {torsion balance}| can use rods that twist.
Vanes {weather vane}| can point in direction from which wind comes, because force is greater on back-end larger surface.
Centrifugal pendulums {whirling regulator}| can control rotation speed in windmills.
Lathes can scrape wood {woodturning}|.
A ring holding a lower object, for example a ship's compass, can be in a base with two axes {gimbal}|, so ring stays horizontal when base tilts.
Spinning discs or circles {gyroscope}| {gyroscopic compass} can be in bearings {gimbal bearing} with three axes, which allow motion in any direction. Gyroscopes maintain space orientation. Laser beams can split and go through two paths, with different lengths if platform rotates, measured by wave interference. Paths are at triangle corners. Mechanical gyroscope rotation causes precession, which makes magnetic field. Semiconductor gyroscope vibrates in electric field against springs, and rotation changes vibration.
A rod has a spherical head and a joined rod has a hollow spherical receptor {ball and socket joint}|.
Two rods can hinge at obtuse angle {toggle joint}|, and rods have hinges at other end. Force at central hinge pushes far ends outward.
Two shafts can link at two axes {universal joint}|, perpendicular to each other and to shafts. Universal joint allows free movement in all directions.
Mechanical joints {caster, furniture}| {furniture caster} can allow swivel and roll.
structure
A shaft rotates around vertical axis. Shaft holds an axle around which wheel or sphere rotates. Wheel can swivel and roll freely, so furniture can move easily.
types
Bent tubes can hold both vertical shaft and wheel shaft {skew caster}. Balls can be set in vertical holders {ball caster}.
speed
Casters typically wobble at higher speeds.
brakes
Casters can have brakes. Pedals prevent roll but not swivel.
Objects {swivel}| can have a central sheath holding a post attached to a base, allowing horizontal object rotation.
Wheels {pulley}| on axes can have rope with which to lift loads by pulling down.
Two pulley sets {block and tackle}| can pass rope back and forth over wheels {block} {tackle, pulley}. Rope pulled long distance supplies force to raise load short distance.
Pulley middle wheels {idler wheel}| allow drive wheel and driven wheel to turn in same direction.
Tire tops can tilt {camber}| out or in, rather than be vertical.
amount
Camber ranges from -1.0 to +1 degrees. Negative camber tilts in. Positive camber tilts out. Positive camber allows better support by wheel bearings.
turn
Tires tend to tilt out toward outside turn, because tread sticks to road and tire top has centrifugal force.
When car body slides toward outside turn, MacPherson strut suspensions tilt tires out, but unequal A-arms tilt tires in. During turns, tire inside or outside can lift off road. Negative camber for MacPherson strut suspensions and positive camber for unequal A-arms allow tires to be vertical during turns, when traction is most important.
pull
If one tire has higher camber, car pulls to that side.
road
Because road crown pulls car to right, in right-hand-drive countries, left tire can require higher camber.
Tires can lean to front or rear {caster, tire}, rather than be vertical. Positive caster is forward tilt. Too much positive caster causes shimmy, because weight falls in front of tread. Too little positive caster causes poor tracking, because weight falls down tire center.
Caster settings typically are 0.5 to 4 degrees. From 3 to 4 results in better straight-line tracking but heavier steering. From 0.5 to 1 makes lighter steering, but poorer straight-line tracking.
Negative caster is backward tilt. Negative caster puts weight behind tire and causes unstable tracking, because it pushes tire forward in various directions.
Tires can swivel left or right, rather than aligning straight-ahead {toe}|. Toe is in or out. It causes stability because, during turns or bumps, tires tend to return to straight-ahead position. At higher speeds, toe becomes slightly more out, so starting slightly in is better. Out is only for front tire center offset or special wheel bearings. Rear tires are neither in nor out, because in or out causes instability and rapid tire wear.
A raised post {pommel, saddle}, in saddle front, can hold hand or rope.
pommel {saddlebow}.
strainer or sieve {colander}|.
Food forced through colander with small holes {ricer}| makes texture like cooked rice.
Steel-wire pieces in U shape {staple, stapler} are lightly glued together to make a row of staples. Spring presses row of staples against front of device {stapler}|. Front has a slot the width and breadth of one staple. Metal press has width and breadth of one staple. Pushing down metal press pushes one staple down front slot. At bottom, concave grooves {anvil, stapler} curve staple points in or out. Industrial staplers cut and shape steel wire, just before stapling.
Thin magazines staple {magazine stapling}| in center of fold {saddle stitch}. Thick magazines staple from edge front to back {side stitch}, with a glued-on cover.
In frames {weaving}|, threads are strung lengthwise evenly from top to bottom {warp, weaving}. Frame width is cloth width. Other threads pass over and under warp threads {weft, weaving}, from bottom up. Frame presses weft thread down next to one below.
Continuous frames {loom}| can weave cloth.
parts
Looms have rollers {loom beam}, on which warp threads are wound tight. Warp-thread even-numbered ends pass through loops in middle of vertical wires on a frame {heald}. Odd-numbered warp threads pass through loops on second heald. Warp threads pass through frame vertical wires {reed, frame} and attach to second roller. As one heald rises, the other falls, so shuttle carrying weft thread can pass through. Reed presses new weft thread against previous weft thread.
types
Weaves {plain weave} can go over and under alternating warp threads, so weft threads go over and under same warp threads. Weaves {canvas weave} can go over and under every two warp threads, so weft threads go over and under same warp threads. Weaves {twill weave} can go over and under every two warp threads, so alternating weft threads go over and under different warp threads.
In weaving, a holder {shuttle}| slides back and forth to place woof thread above and below warp threads.
Piles of short, thin fibers {spinning fiber}| can make thread. First, people attach several fibers to wood or metal bar {spindle}. Fiber pile is next to spindle. As spindle turns, it pulls out more fibers from pile and winds fibers tight. After that, twisting several threads together makes larger and stronger string or twine.
Machines {spinning frame}| can draw and twist fibers into yarn and then wind yarn.
Spinning frames {spinning jenny}| can have several spindles.
Wheels {spinning wheel}| can turn a spindle, to twist fibers into yarn.
lengthwise threads {warp, thread}.
Threads {weft, thread} can be across warp or fabric texture.
Store windowpanes tilt outward at top and inward at bottom to minimize reflections {store window} {window display}. Reflections go down into sidewalk.
Windows {casement}| {window} can have glass doors hinged on side, top, or bottom. Latches lock windows shut. Cranks can open windows.
Windows {louvered window}| can have horizontal glass slats. Cranks with a worm gear tilt glass slabs shut or open.
Bay windows {oriel}| can project out from wall.
Wood or metal slats {venetian blind}|, suspended from strings, can cover windows. Cord raises bottom slat and so pulls up other slats. Locking lever at top right-hand side holds raising cord, to keep blinds up. Left-side cord pulls strings up on one side and down on other side, to change slat angle.
Windows can have separate top half and bottom half {window sash}| {sash, window half}. Bottom has cords at two top corners. Cords go through window top-part edge, over pulley in window-frame side, down to weights {sash weight}. Small screwed-on doors are on lower frame sides, allowing access to weights. Sash windows {double hung sash} can move top and bottom panels.
Crossbar and neck holders {yoke}| can be for two draft animals.
U-shaped ox collars {oxbow} allow ox to pull something.
Devices {coffee maker}| can make coffee.
Hot water can go over coffee grounds in filter paper and drip through into cup {Chemex}.
Hot water can go over coffee grounds in a metal or ceramic holder with tiny holes in bottom and drip through into cup {Filtre}.
Bottom part can hold water, and top part can hold grounds, so steam from lower pot forces water up through tube into grounds {Silex}.
A metal cup with perforated base can hold grounds above a pot filled with water. Steam, from bottom, pushes water up tube to a small glass cup at pot top to drip hot water onto grounds {percolator}.
A water boiler can have a spigot leading to a small cup, which holds grounds for steaming {Espresso machine}.
Devices {radiator}| can receive steam or hot water from boilers or engines through pipes. Radiators have large surface area, to release heat into air by convection. Fan can blow on radiator. Cooler condensed water returns to boiler or engine through pipes. Whistle of radiators comes from valves that allow cold air to leave radiator but shut when hot.
As water leaves openings, it pushes backward and can cause bar to rotate {sprinkler}|, to change spray direction to cover yard. Sprinklers {impulse sprayer} can use water jets that hit a weighted bar and then a spring pulls bar back to hit a stop, which turns sprinkler top around. Sprinklers {hose walker} can have a bar connected to a gear, which moves a wheel along a guide. Sprinklers {tape winder} can have a bar connected to a winder, which pulls in metal tape attached to ground. Sprinklers {fan sprayer} can have tubes with rows of holes and a small water wheel, which oscillates sprayer.
Boilers {still, alcohol}| can produce alcohol-water steam, which cools at optimum temperature to make concentrated alcohol solution.
A rubber blade {squeegee}| on a perpendicular handle can wipe liquids from surfaces.
Beginning swimmers can wear inflated pads {water wing}| around upper arms.
Water tanks can have an opening to a bowl {toilet}| {water closet}. When rubber stopper moves, water falls into bowl. Bowl water goes out drain. A U-shaped pipe in drain {toilet trap} holds water, to prevent odors from coming from sewer pipes. Rubber plug falls back into hole. A float-control ball opens a valve to let water into tank, until float rises enough to close valve.
Flushing can cause vacuum {vacuum breaker}|, which sucks bowl contents out. Water flowing back in causes new vacuum.
Spray cans {aerosol can}| {spray can} can contain pressurized gas-and-liquid mixtures, which expand out a small hole after pressing button. Expansion force breaks liquid into tiny droplets in gas. Freon gas turns to liquid at pressure six atmospheres.
Air can mix with liquid and blow out an opening in a fine spray {atomizer}|.
Machines {vaporizer}| can push water against a screen to make spray or heat water to make steam.
Tubes {shunt, machine}| allow fluid to flow between two cavities or tubes.
Tubes {syringe}| can have a fitted piston to pull liquid by suction or push liquid by pressure.
Tubes can trap vapor that can slow fluid flow {vapor lock}|, when temperature makes fuel vapor pressure equal to liquid gravity or vacuum pressure.
Cylinders with a narrow part {Herschel Venturi tube} {Venturi tube, fluid}| can attach to a large tube in which fluid flows, to measure flow rate.
Tubes can have devices {valve, tube}| that prevent flow in one direction or flow in both directions.
A hollow ball can float on water surface and an attached rod opens and closes a fluid valve {ball cock}| {float cup}.
Valves {ball valve}| can have a ball that seals tube opening.
Side holes {aerator}| at faucet tips can let air into water. An aerator obstruction makes water turbulent, to allow more air.
Entrances {air lock}| can have two doors, so space between is a buffer.
Divers can carry a compressed air tank with breathing apparatus {aqualung}|.
Tubes {aspirator}| can have vacuum, which can pull up liquid or a small object.
Airflow can slow and quiet using perpendicular surfaces {baffle}|.
Air sacs {bellows}| can suck in air and then blow air out, to kindle fires.
Hollow tubes {blowpipe}| can blow air into receptacles.
People suck smoke, from hot tobacco placed on burning charcoal, over cool water into tube {waterpipe} {hookah}| {water pipe}.
Diver can use compressed air tank and breathing apparatus and wear wet suit {scuba}|.
Skin divers use a tube {snorkel}| from mouth to surface. Tube has ball valve that prevents water from entering during inhalation.
Water is available from a valve {faucet}| at pipe end, with a handle to allow or stop water flow. Faucets press a rubber or plastic washer into water inlet to close valve.
faucet {spigot}.
A rotating handle {turncock} {stopcock}| can close and open a fluid outlets.
Quills or feathers {pen, writing}| can hold ink in hollow insides [500].
Pens {ballpoint pen}| can have a rough-surface steel ball at tip. Thick ink is on ball.
Pens {fountain pen}| can have rubber sacs to hold ink or have replaceable ink cartridges. From ink sac, a capillary tube leads to point {nib, pen}. Nib is flexible and has a split down middle lengthwise. Slit acts like a capillary tube to draw ink forward. Plastic under point {comb, pen} stores ink. Pressure or temperature change forces ink out reservoir.
large hollow feather used to draw ink for writing {quill}.
Petroleum separates {fractional distillation column}| at 500 C into distillate, which goes to a solvent extractor to make lubricating oil, grease, and wax. Petroleum separates at 250 C into gas and oil, which goes to a catalytic cracker to make fuel oil, jet fuel, kerosene, and diesel fuel. Petroleum separates at 170 C into kerosene. Petroleum separates at 100 C into heavy naphtha, which goes to a catalytic reformer to make gasoline. Petroleum separates at 65 C into naphtha for gasoline, propane and butane gas to make gasoline by alkylation, propylene and ethylene plastic in thermal cracker, and butadiene rubber by polymerization. Residue is asphalt and tar.
Burning used catalyst can remove residual hydrocarbons {chemical regenerator}|. Combusted gases heat a brick lattice that heats incoming air and fuel. Flow reverses regularly {heat regenerator}.
Hot oil and gas hydrocarbons from a petroleum fractional-distillation column can mix with catalyst to make shorter chains, which fractionally distill to make jet fuel, kerosene, and diesel fuel {catalytic cracker} {cracker, machine}|. Regenerator receives catalyst.
Oil wells {gusher}| can strike oil or gas.
Unbranched hydrocarbons {heavy naphtha} from petroleum fractional distillation column and/or catalytic cracker flow over heated catalyst {catalytic reformer} {reformer}|, to make branched hydrocarbons for gasoline. Catalyst goes to regenerator.
Petroleum distillate can make lubricating oil, grease, and wax {solvent extractor}|.
Ethylene plastic comes from gases from fractional petroleum distillation {thermal cracker}|.
Devices {pump, machine}| can receive fluid from one opening, take fluid part, and force fluid out another opening.
types
Pumps {piston pump} can use pistons in cylinders to suck fluid in as they go down, while keeping outlet check valve closed by pressure, and then force fluid out as they go up, while keeping inlet check valve closed by pressure.
Piston pumps {axial piston pump} can use a circle of pistons. Rotating wedges {wobble plate} can press and release pistons as they turn.
Pumps {gear pump} can have two gears, one rotating clockwise and one counterclockwise, which squeeze fluid between teeth and housing and push fluid out one side.
Pumps {vane pump} can have rotors with spring-loaded sliding vanes. Vanes sweep fluid around housing from inlet to outlet.
priming
Fluid fills pumps to start them working {pump priming, fluid}.
Basements or tanks {sump}| can hold water gathered by gravity. Pumps {sump pump} can remove water from sumps.
Steam under pressure can clean laboratory utensils {autoclave}|.
Gas ovens {gas oven}| have burners underneath, holes in oven-chamber bottom front to let air in, and flue in oven top leading to chimney in back. Chimney has several turns, to trap grease vapors. Gas burners have gas-jet rows or rings, with small flames {pilot light} at gas-inlet tubes.
Pads {heating pad}| can have molded rubber around insulated wires. Wires are Nichrome.
Heavy cookers {pressure cooker}| have sealed tops, to double pressure of boiled water inside. Pressure cookers boil at 120 C and can cook in shorter time. Safety valves let off excess steam. Remove top only after cooling, after normal pressure returns.
Ore can melt, so impurities float on top and pure metal sinks to bottom {smelter}|.
Furnaces {Bessemer converter} {open-hearth furnace} can use air to burn impurities out of iron ore to make steel {steel making}|. Steel-making furnaces can use pure oxygen gas, instead of air, to burn impurities out of iron ore {L-D process} {basic oxygen process}.
A log holder {andiron} allows air to flow from under logs up through chimney {fireplace}|. Just above fireplace is chimney throat, which contains a hinged metal plate, to open or close throat {damper}. Behind damper is space {smoke box} to collect smoke, in case of temporary downdraft. A passageway {flue} goes up chimney. A glass fire screen is desirable. Chimney should be at least 12 meters high, extend above roof by 60 centimeters, and be at least 400 square centimeters in area. There should be masonry firebox.
Heaters {forced air heater}| can use a fan to blow hot air.
Stoves {Franklin stove}| can be a free-standing fireplace, raised off floor, in room middle, with exhaust pipe leading straight up to ceiling.
Heaters {furnace, heater} {hot air heating} can heat air by electricity or by burning oil, natural gas, or coal carried into furnace by pipe or conveyor {stoker, furnace}. Air blows through ducts to rooms. Screened openings {register, furnace} in floor or walls have louvers to direct airflow. Air returns to furnace through main duct.
Natural gas from jets burns, warms air, causes air to rise, and pulls in more air from below {gas heater}|.
Heat pumps {heat pump}| can transfer heat from underground water to house. They work like air conditioners in reverse.
Heaters {space heater}| can have no blower. Convection moves air.
Melting together by acetylene torch {welding, metal}| can connect two metals.
Welding can use no metal melting {sintering}|.
Slit series {collimator}| make light passing through have only one direction.
Computer monitors or television screens have a smallest element {pixel}|. Elements can have different intensities.
Arc lamps can illuminate transparent film slides {projector}|. Light goes through magnifying lenses to focus on screen. A glass plate absorbs hot infrared-light rays before they reach film. Slides have a glass slide holder to prevent warping by heat. Fan cools projector.
Light {actinic light}| can have optimum spectra for photosynthesis. It is for aquariums with plants or coral.
Electric arcs emit light {arc lamp}|.
Electric current passed through a tube heats mercury vapor slightly to emit ultraviolet light {fluorescent light}|. Ultraviolet light hits tube phosphorescent coating, to give white light. Fluorescent light is more efficient and cooler than incandescent light. Fluorescent light has more light at different wavelengths.
Light bulbs {incandescent bulb}| send electric current through tungsten filaments, which become white-hot. Bulb is globe of clear or frosted glass, with vacuum or nitrogen gas inside. If filament breaks, bulb burns out. You can hear filament hitting glass if you shake bulb.
Lamps {photoflood}| can have high intensity and one direction.
Light {strobe light}| {stroboscope} can flash on and off faster than 30 times per second. Photographs can show stopped action clearly.
Strings {wick} can have paraffin wax or beeswax coverings {candle, burning}|. Flame heat melts wax, which string soaks up. Wax then vaporizes and burns.
thin candle {taper}.
Electronic number displays can use transistors that emit red light when charged {light emitting diode}| (LED).
Electronic number displays {nixie tube}| can use gas discharge around cathodes.
Organic molecule diodes {organic light-emitting device}| (OLED) can emit colored light with electric current.
Crystals {photonic crystal}| can have empty spaces in refractive substances. It prevents a wavelength band {photonic band gap} from passing, by refraction and reflection. If substance is polymer and empty spaces are liquid crystals that can move around, affected wavelengths can change. Frequency can change, light passage can delay, or wavelength range can narrow. If liquid-crystal orientations are random, light scatters. If orientations align, material is transparent. Diffraction grating is one-dimensional photonic crystal.
Electronic number displays can use cathodes on flat bases {planar gas discharge}|.
Kerosene lamps {hurricane lamp}| can have shields to prevent extinguishing by wind.
alcohol or kerosene lamp {spirit lamp}|.
Small glass wall cases {shadow box}| can display objects.
Holders {stereopticon} can have picture for left eye and picture for right eye, to better show depth [1838].
Horizontal platforms {sundial}| can have markings for daylight hours, and a middle rod or plate casts a shadow to indicate time.
In dim light, leaving lens open {time exposure}| can make photographs.
Copying machines {mimeograph}| can use blue dye pressed onto sheet, which then transfers to other sheets using solvent.
Light reflected from an image can make an electrostatic pattern on a plate, to which carbon particles cling and from which ink transfers to paper, to dry by heating {photocopier}| {xerox}.
Re-photographing a photograph through a glass screen that has 55 to 130 lines per square inch, vertically and horizontally {photoengraving}|, makes a negative that has very small dots.
process
Zinc or copper sheets {plate} with film emulsion receive negative. Light shines on plate to deposit silver. Developing plate and washing with acid dissolves zinc or copper at locations that have no silver. A roller applies ink to plate. Machines {printing press} press paper onto plate, to make heavy, medium, and light dots.
color
Color prints require yellow, red, blue, and black color plates {four-color process}. Art magazines use six plates and colors: yellow, red, blue, black, green, and white.
photographed document {photostat}|.
Photocopying {scanner, computer}| can transfer image to computer file.
Dry copying {xerography} can use electrically charged resin.
Transparent film slide is in front of oil lantern or light bulb {magic lantern}|. Light focuses on screen using lenses.
Projectors {movie projector}| can use holes in film sides {sprocket, movie film} to position new film frames behind lens, 16 or more times a second. Movie projectors hold film frames for 1/30 second. A rotating disc blocks light while film frames change. Film moves by gears pulling film through by film sprockets. Take-up reel turns as main reel turns.
Still cameras {camera}| can expose film to light to record images.
lens
Cameras can move lens forward or backward {focus, camera}, to make picture clear. Close-ups use lens far forward. Cameras can have bellows or extension rings to allow lens to go far forward. Special lenses {zoom lens} can keep focus at different magnifications. Special lenses {telescopic lens} can magnify. Special lenses {fish-eye lens} can be wide field.
diaphragm
Cameras can make smaller or larger openings {diaphragm, camera} {iris diaphragm} {f-stop}, so picture is not too dark or light. Diaphragms usually have an iris of overlapping metal leaves. Diaphragms have positions 2 for wide open, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32 for almost closed. Larger numbers reduce area by half.
shutter
Cameras can open for periods {shutter, camera}. Shutters are fast, so motions are not blurs. Shutters open long enough to receive enough light. Shutter irises can be set near lens {between-the-lens shutter}, which have speeds from 1/2000 second to several seconds. Shutters used in small cameras can be rectangles, which pass across opening near film at fixed speed but which have adjustable size.
Camera shutter speeds are usually 1/25, 1/50, 1/100, and 1/200 second. Times of 1/50 second or faster prevent unsteady-hand blur.
accessories
Camera accessories include three-legged stand {tripod}, colored plastic disc {filter, camera}, and electronic flash {flashgun}.
Cameras {movie camera}| can have a shutter that repeatedly opens for 1/30 second. Cameras use holes in film sides {sprocket, film} to position new film frame behind lens, 16 or more times a second. Cameras hold film frames for 1/30 second. Cameras repeat the process. Film moves by gears pulling film at film sprockets. Take-up reel turns as main reel turns.
Mirrors reflect image onto ground glass screen {reflex camera}|.
Film lines or spots {blip}| can be for timing or counting.
A hot smooth metal plate {ferrotype}| pressed against paper emulsion can make glossy paper, or dark enameled metal can create a direct positive image.
Emulsions {film}| can contain silver-compound molecules.
camera
Light enters camera lens and focuses on film. Black-and-white film has silver bromide or silver iodide crystal emulsion embedded in cellulose acetate. Light separates silver from silver bromide, to make latent image. People remove film from camera in the dark.
develop
Chemical treatment {developer, film treatment} makes actual image. Developer chemicals liberate more silver around silver already present, to bring out image. Chemical treatment {fixer, film treatment} {hypo} sets image permanently {negative film} in transparent reverse image. Fixer washes away remaining silver bromide, so film cannot change anymore if exposed to more light.
printing
Passing light through negative and lenses {enlarger, photography} can make a larger print {positive film}. Print paper has silver bromide crystals in gelatin {emulsion, film}. Print paper develops and fixes. Negative can be directly on top of print paper and have direct exposure to light {contact printing, film}.
transparency
Transparent negatives {slide, film} {transparency, film} can be for projection.
color
Color film has three layers, one for red, one for blue, and one for green. Layers have dyes to filter out other colors.
instant
Instant picture cameras {Polaroid camera} transfer negative to positive by pressing both together to release chemicals.
non-glossy surface {matte, surface}|.
Film can display all colors {panchromatic}|.
Telescopes and microscopes have a lens {magnifying lens}| that enlarges images.
Telescopes and microscopes have a light-gathering lens {objective lens}|.
Telescopes and microscopes have a lens {ocular}| near eye for magnifying.
Thin fused silica, glass, or plastic rods {optical fiber}| can transmit light. Outside layer {cladding} reflects rays. Absorbing high-angle rays and reflecting low-angle rays makes one axial light ray. Refocusing light by refractive-index gradient makes one axial light ray. Wavelengths amplify in region with rare-earth erbium ions added, which laser excites. Over 150 wavelengths can be in fibers using multiplexing {dense wavelength division multiplexing} (DWDM), which allows 400 gigabits per second.
Blocks {superlens}| {metamaterial} can have thin wires in parallel planes {split-ring resonators} (SRR) a short distance apart, which have negative electrical permittivity and negative magnetic permeability and so negative refractive index. Forces from arrays push back on photons. Negative refractive index makes receding object blue-shifted. Cerenkov radiation travels in opposite direction, not forward. Refraction at boundary from positive to negative refraction bends light more, so it bends past perpendicular.
two attached low-magnification adjustable telescopes {binoculars}.
Electron beams can pass through {transmission electron microscope}, or reflect from {scanning electron microscope}, 0.1-micron thin slices {electron microscope}| (EM). Electric and magnetic fields focus electrons onto a phosphorescent screen. Microscopes can use electrons with energy above 1 MeV, because they act like X-rays. Electrons can pass through tissue and focus. Electron microscope resolution is 10^-10 meter.
Concave and convex lenses can focus and magnify images that are small and far away {telescope}|. Light amount increases with larger opening. Refracting telescopes have a large lens that collects light to a focal point, and a second small high-curvature lens that focuses image for viewing. Reflecting telescopes have a large lens that collects light to a mirror, which focuses light on a second small high-curvature lens that focuses image for viewing.
X-ray beams can pass through 0.1-micron slices {x-ray microscope}|. X-rays focus by electric and magnetic fields onto phosphorescent electron-gun-TV-like screen.
Color printers {printing in color}| use systems.
RGB
RGB {red-green-blue} (RGB) adds red, green, and blue to make most colors. Color brightness range is 0 to 256. For example, fluorescent phosphors can emit light, or lights can glow. Though RGB can make 16 million colors, a set {Browser Safe set} of 216 RGB color combinations is for browsers.
CYMK
Color processes {cyan-yellow-magenta-black} (CYMK) {cyan-magenta-yellow-black} (CMYK) can use cyan, yellow, magenta, and black absorption, plus paper white, to display colors. For example, inkjet printers squirt cyan, yellow, and magenta or cyan, yellow, magenta, and black. CYMK allows one million colors, but it cannot make light, bold, or bright colors and cannot make some greens and blues.
Publications published at regular intervals have typical numbers of readers {circulation, publishing}.
Plates or originals {edition} can be for printing.
Machines {postage meter}| can imprint postage on envelopes.
Machines {press}| can squeeze two plates together, typically for printing.
Symbols {thirty} can mark article ends.
Designs {watermark} can be in wet paper.
Works have page-numbering method {pagination}|, such as starting chapters at page 1 and preceding page number with chapter name or number followed by hyphen.
Published-work titles {running title} can appear on all pages or alternating pages.
Photo-prints {blueprint}|, using blue ink, can show building or project designs.
Publishers send all proposed pages {galley proof}| to authors for a final review.
Publishers can make proposed sheets {proof, printing}.
Paper sheets can be in groups {sheaf, paper}|.
To make books {bookbinding}|, a machine folds 16, 32, or 64 consecutive pages like theater programs, with untrimmed outer edges {signature, book}. Machines sew signature stack through fold center, and then press pages flat and trim them to make books. Machines glue cheesecloth to fold side to make edge {spine, book}. Machines glue extended cheesecloth edges to cover boards. Machines glue outer papers of outer signatures to other cheesecloth side.
For paperback books, machines can trim stacked and pressed signatures on all sides, apply cheesecloth to edge using special penetrating glue, and glue cover onto spine {perfect binding} {paperback book}|.
Printing methods {aquatint}| can make color tones from etching.
Actinic light can etch gelatin plates [1870 to 1914] {collotype}|.
Machines {letterpress}| can place raised letters {type, printing} in a racks, ink rack, and press paper onto type. This is oldest printing type.
Machines {linotype}| can typeset.
letter
Linotypes have keyboards similar to typewriter keyboards. When people type a letter, a metal column {mat, linotype} {matrix, linotype}, with letter recessed on top, slides into a slot. When people type a line, linotype fills spaces between letters with spacers, so lines {justified line} have set length.
line
Type lines are templates for hot liquid solder. Cooled solder hardens into lines of raised letters. Mats return to linotype for reuse.
page
A person {compositor} places raised-letter lines on a flat surface {stone, printing} in a metal frame {chase, printing}. Person tightens frame {locked up, printing}, to make one page.
inking
A person {pressman} lays chase on a printing press. Rubber rollers roll over ink and onto chase, which takes ink.
printing
Paper, clamped on a drum, rolls as chase slides under drum.
drying
Ink dries by heat or spray.
Photograph negatives on zinc or copper sheets {lithographic plate} can have coatings {lithography}| {offset printing}. Arc light exposes plate. Printed areas are greasy, and unprinted are dry. Plate clamps to drum, roller wets plate, and another roller inks plate. Ink only sticks to greasy areas. A rubber plate {blanket} rolls over metal plate to receive ink. Rubber plate is like chase in printing presses. A cylinder holds image.
Wet paint on glass, Plexiglas, or metal can transfer to paper by pressing {monotype}|.
Printing {process color} {process printing}| can use four colors: cyan, yellow, magenta, and black (CYMK).
Ink on etched copper cylinders in rotary presses can transfer to paper {rotogravure}.
silkscreen {serigraph}|.
Frames with silk, nylon, or wire threads can have open areas to print and greased areas not to print. A squeegee forces ink through screen onto cloth or paper {silkscreen}|.
Published works have font and layout {typography}|, such as line spacing, distance between characters, indenting, spacing between paragraphs, and heading styles.
Characters have style {typeface}, such as Arial, Courier, Geneva, Helvetica, Maestro, Old English, Palatino, Times, TTY, or VT100.
Letters {allograph}| can have different shapes.
Characters can be darker {bold face}.
Characters can slant {italic}.
Characters can be smaller and aligned with line bottom {subscript}.
Characters can be smaller and aligned with line top {superscript}.
Characters can have points at corners {serif}, for easier readability.
Characters can have no points at corners {sans serif}, for less clutter and clearer resolution on computer screens.
One page can have both sides printed in two passes {broadsheet}|.
One page can have print on one side {broadside printing}|.
Machines can print two pages at same time {folio}|.
Machines can print four pages at same time {quarto}|.
Machines can print eight pages at same time {octavo}|.
Instruments {altimeter}| can measure height.
Wind speed measurement uses spinning devices {anemometer}|, which generate electric current to move a dial.
Air capsules {aneroid barometer}| can compress or expand to measure air pressure.
Instruments {barometer}| can measure air pressure, typically using mercury columns.
Instruments {calorimeter}| can measure heat produced by burning masses.
Instruments {cardiograph}| can measure heartbeat rate.
Electrically operated pens on revolving drums {chronograph}| can record short durations and rapid changes [1849].
Instruments {colorimeter}| can measure color in fluid.
Instruments {dynamometer}| can put loads on engines and measure force and work.
Phototubes {heat sensor}| can sense infrared light. People and animals radiate infrared light, as do hot machinery and exhaust, so heat sensors have military uses. Heat sensors also detect light-level changes for television cameras.
To visualize air density, a straight edge and mirrors {interferometer}| {Schlieren interferometer} can make an interference pattern. Optical interferometers allow sharp images through atmosphere.
Photocells {light meter}| can measure light amount and can have a film-type dial.
Instruments {manometer}| {sphyngomanometer} can measure blood pressure.
Thermometers {meat thermometer}| can measure temperatures from 120 to 210 F. Put meat thermometer in thickest meat part, thigh away from bone for turkey and lean center part for other meats. For beef, temperature of 170 is well done, 160 is medium, and 140 is rare.
A flexible shaft with wire inside can go from car wheel to dashboard dial {odometer}|. Rotating wheel rotates wire, which turns gear connected to counter. The same wire is for speedometer.
Instruments {oscilloscope}| can measure frequency and amplitude.
Instruments {pedometer}| can measure steps per minute.
Instruments {planimeter}| can measure area, using an extensible rotating arm.
Instruments {polarimeter}| can measure light polarization angle.
Lie detectors {polygraph}| can use decreased skin resistance from more sweating to indicate lies. To detect body changes associated with lying, measure skin electrical resistance, breathing rate, and heart rate. Lie detectors are best on statements asking about person's activities or about details, to see if person was there or not.
Instruments {pychnometer}| can measure specific gravity.
Thermometers {pyrometer}| can measure radiation intensity for wavelength range.
Instruments {radiometer}| can measure electromagnetic radiation intensity by reflection from surface.
Instruments {seismometer}| can measure earth movements in earthquakes.
Instruments {spectrograph}| can measure intensity at wavelengths.
Instruments {spectrometer}| {spectrophotometer} can measure light intensity passing through material or solution at a wavelength.
Instruments {spectroscope}| can measure intensity at a wavelength.
Flexible shafts with wire inside run from car wheel to dashboard dial {speedometer}|. Rotating wheel rotates wire, which turns magnet behind aluminum disc, to set up electric current, which moves dial needle. The same wire is for odometer.
Instruments {spherometer}| can measure surface curvature.
Instruments {spirometer}| can measure air volume and flow rate inhaled and exhaled by lungs.
Instruments {tachometer}| can measure revolutions per minute.
Instruments {tensiometer}| can measure tension.
Temperature instruments {thermometer}| can be tubes with vacuum and mercury or alcohol inside. Mercury or alcohol expands as temperature increases.
Electric clocks {clock} use synchronous motors, which turn at 60 cycles per second, USA AC-current frequency. Electric motor replaces pendulum, escapement, and spring or weight.
Clocks {atomic clock}| can use cesium-atom vibrations to establish frequency.
Clocks and watches can have oscillating wheels {balance wheel}| that determine frequency.
Clocks {cesium clock}| can depend on cesium emission-spectrum wavelength.
very accurate clock {chronometer}|.
Clock parts {escapement}| can transfer power from main spring to gears, by oscillating. Escapement has pendulum, ratchet, and gear.
spring
Springs {mainspring} are coiled or flat steel ribbon, which is wound to provide energy.
oscillation
Clocks with a hanging pendulum use gravity for back-and-forth oscillation. Weight hangs on chain, as in cuckoo clocks. Clocks with a circular pendulum use a hairspring and lever for oscillation.
Pendulum connects to ratchet, which engages gear teeth. Alternatively, ratchet can press against gears to escapement wheel, so wheel turns one notch if released by ratchet. The mechanism pushes ratchet lightly, which pushes pendulum slightly and keeps pendulum moving in spite of friction.
process
Oscillation in one direction moves gear one step forward. Oscillation in other direction moves ratchet into position to receive next forward motion. Oscillation takes a fixed time, which shortening or lengthening can adjust.
Two spherical chambers can have narrow constriction between them through which fine sand flows {hourglass, clock}|.
Maser clocks {hydrogen clock}| depend on hydrogen emission wavelengths and are accurate to one part in 10^15.
Clocks {quartz clock}| can use quartz-crystal oscillations in escapement. A battery provides current that oscillates crystal.
Clocks {timer}| can mechanically or electrically start or start movements, at specific times.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225