He lived 1917 to 1999.
He lived 1832 to 1917, studied folklore and societies {ethnology, Tylor} {ethnography, Tylor}, and founded social anthropology. All humans have same mind type.
Religion is superstition and belief in spiritual beings or persons {animism, Tylor}. People see difference between living and death, sleep, or trance and have dreams and visions of people and other living things, so they think everything has a living soul, which can be independent of body.
Evil spirits can enter bodies. One spirit can become supreme. Magic and myth require narrative with rational associations. Rational culture improves over time, but ancient superstitions still survive.
He lived 1831 to 1880 and studied customs and mythology.
He lived 1818 to 1881 and studied society types.
He lived 1826 to 1905. Everyone has same brain physiology {psychic unity of mankind} and has same elementary ideas {Elementargedanken}, so people differ only in culture and history. Societies develop from simple to complex according to laws {genetic principle}, and societies have collective representations and folk ideas. Studying collective representations and folk ideas from many cultures can reveal elementary ideas.
He lived 1858 to 1942 and studied Pacific-Northwest native societies [1910]. He studied perception and sensation, such as not hearing spoken sounds {sound blindness} and seeing color categories, and believed that contexts determined them.
He lived 1854 to 1941 and studied myths and comparative religions.
Primitive people first believe in magic through similarity and in magic through contact. Magician has social power and is often tribal chief. Later, people replace magic with spirits and so have animistic religion, in which they pray to or propitiate beings. Kings arise, who are priests, have priests, or are gods themselves. Rituals and social behaviors follow from beliefs.
Primitive thought links to magic. Magic can involve homeopathy, contagion, sympathetic magic, taboos, sorcery, charms, voodoo dolls, and envoutement. Magic can involve showing gods what people want.
Primitive thought involved customs and institutions. Sacred marriages and orgiastic festivals encouraged fecundity, fertility, and more crops. The saturnalia festival was period of anarchy each year, held in Rome and elsewhere. Ceremonies for fertility, solar year, harvest, and king's death used fire, because the king represented the people, not like a priest or magician.
Primitive thought involved souls. Bodies also have souls, which can leave body and return, through body openings. Shadows and reflections can be souls. Souls can occupy portraits. Death is not real, because soul is separate.
Science later replaces religion.
He lived 1884 to 1942 and studied South Pacific Trobriand Islanders [1920 to 1940]. He studied functional anthropology, oedipal complex as child's resenting father dominance, and phattic communion.
He lived 1857 to 1939. Primitive mentality is imaginative and emotional {prelogical society}, comes from cultural collective representations, and mixes with objects {law of participation} {mystical participation}. Modern mentality is logical, comes from experience, and is separate from objects. Both forms are appropriate.
She lived 1901 to 1978.
She lived 1887 to 1948 and studied cultural relativism, northwest USA Indians, and southwest USA Indians.
He lived 1902 to 1973, studied African peoples, and criticized grandiose theories.
All peoples use symbols, analogy, and metaphor. Society's rituals and beliefs explain many society aspects. Supernatural powers {spirits, Evans-Pritchard} form hierarchies and families.
People have souls, and ghosts can leave bodies and return. Souls are not spirits.
People can believe that all ills are their fault, and they must atone. Sacrifice is to atone to a god for transgression and is typically private. Public sacrifices are for weddings and funerals.
He lived 1872 to 1950 and wrote that culture affects body posture, balance, kinesthesia, and movements {habitus}.
He lived 1892 to 1974. Social non-sensory symbols of meaning, values, emotions, and motivations affect perception {behavioral environment}.
He lived 1926 to 2006 and studied Java and Bali peoples. He advocated trying to interpret culture, rather than just explaining behaviors.
People live in systems of meaning {culture, Geertz}, in which actions have intention and significance, and people have knowledge and attitudes. Action meaning is public and observable.
Ideas, attitudes, and purposes lead to religion. Religion is cultural system, societal symbol system about the way world is and should be {world-view}, which builds feelings, values, and goals {ethos, sociology}. It explains evil, suffering, death, and universe. Rituals blend world-view and ethos. Participating puts people in touch with highest reality.
He lived 1924 to 1994 and studied African pygmy peoples.
He lived 1915 to 1996. Societies are bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states.
He lived 1920 to 1983 and studied rituals. Rituals have symbols are conventions, refer to many things, cause actions. They are about morals and norms. Human physiology provides another source of symbols, emotions, and motivations. Both interlink to make person. People must find structural system from experience units {Erlebnis} and event sequence {Erleben} through the basic perception, memories, emotions, meanings, values, and knowing.
Species have adaptations {biogram} of ancestors {anlage}.
He lived 1930 to 2002 and studied how culture and society affect behavior, perception, emotion, and motivation {theory of practice}.
He studied how children develop ideas from implicit learning by observation, participation, modeling, and trial and error. He also noted that human physiology constrains culture.
He lived 1938 to ?.
He lived 1788 to 1865 and assigned Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age eras. Gold jewelry {bracteates} [500 to 700] has Norse motifs.
He lived 1830 to 1889 and studied Greek and Roman morals, traditions, and religion in city-states.
He lived 1822 to 1890 and excavated Troy [1872 to 1973] and Mycenae [1876]. He found gold at Troy [1874]. He discovered gold jewelry from -1550 at Mycenae [1876].
He lived 1880 to 1960 and discovered Ur.
He lived 1907 to 1995.
He lived 1910 to 1996.
He lived 1901 to 1972 and invented a systems theory {general systems theory}. All fields of study have structural similarities {isomorphism, Bertalanffy}.
He lived 1908 to 2009. Systems have arrangements of rules, institutions, and environments {structuralism, sociology} and have models. All cultures share solutions to human conflicts that have structural similarities. Myths from different cultures share structures. Belief systems, cultures, communications, and languages have semantic and syntactic structures.
He lived 1912 to 1979.
.
He lived 1919 to ? and studied anthropology.
He lived 1910 to 1993 and studied education.
He lived 1911 to 1972.
He lived 1893 to 1978 and studied comprehensive high schools.
He lived 1909 to 1995.
He lived 1923 to ?.
He lived 1935 to ?.
He lived 1936 to ? and studied education.
.
.
He lived 1931 to 2003 and studied education.
He studied education.
.
He studied education.
He lived 1861 to 1934. People behave in different ways in the presence of others {social facilitation}. People can acquire knowledge and build it into structure by adding more knowledge {genetic epistemology}.
Children learn to differentiate knower and known, in both themselves and others, and to reintegrate such knowledge. Infants do not differentiate between subjects and objects or self and others {adualism}. They learn by observation and imitation to see other behavior {projective behavior}, then do it and feel it {subjective behavior}, and then infer it in others {ejective behavior}. Consciousness structure develops by this process until about age 13.
He lived 1864 to 1944 and helped start Chicago School of Sociology.
He lived 1897 to 1985 and studied comparative culture.
He lived 1900 to 1987. He created symbolic interactionism [1937], with Everett C. Hughes at University of Chicago {Second Chicago School}. Their predecessors were W. I. Thomas and Robert Park {First Chicago School}.
He lived 1904 to 1981.
He lived 1919 to 1982.
He lived 1901 to 1984 and started polling.
He studied polling.
He lived 1823 to 1892 and studied Judaism and Christianity.
He lived 1823 to 1900. Religion began as nature worship and personified natural forces. As Hindu, Greek, and Roman Aryan languages changed, storytelling {mythology, Muller} began.
He lived 1846 to 1894. Tribe kinship groups had sacred totem animals. Marriages were between groups.
He lived 1869 to 1937. People can have experience of the holy, which is wholly other, beautiful, powerful, and mysterious.
He lived 1907 to 1986, studied folk religion {archaic religion}, and compared religious behavior, symbols, and feelings.
Religion is about the sacred. The sacred has unity and is living, sexual or energetic, redemptive or regenerative, clean, and permanent. The sky, sun, moon, water, stones, Earth, trees, ancestors, heroes, and gods can be sacred. The sacred is powerful, awesome, beautiful, and mysterious.
People intuit the sacred and want to be part of it or return to it. People have religious feelings about the sacred and religious experiences of transcendence. Performing sacraments affects person's beliefs and feelings. Religions use symbols, symbol systems, and myths to refer to the sacred.
People want to end history and start over {eternal return myth} {myth of eternal return}, so life will have meaning. Judaic prophets proclaimed that life was trials, punishments, and blessings from God and so was meaningful.
Modern society removes the sacred from history and nature.
He lived 1904 to 1987.
He lived 1855 to 1936. Human will depends on either instinctive force {essential will} or reasoned purpose or goal {arbitrary will}. Communities {Gemeinschaft}, such as cities and states, can depend on essential will, to gain essential needs. Societies {Gesellschaft}, such as families and neighborhoods, can form to reach goals.
He lived 1858 to 1917.
Suicide happens in individuals dissociated from their groups {anomie, Durkheim}, who lose social rules or have social-rule conflicts. Social cohesion minimizes suicide risk {social cohesion theory}, but communities do not always have values and beliefs adequate to current social problems.
Societies have behavior norms. Social institutions and relations, such as language, law, customs, values, traditions, inventions, family, religion, and work, shape individual behavior and beliefs.
Religion and morals are main society parts, and all change together.
Religion is about the sacred, not magic, supernatural, or spirits. Community shares the sacred. Taboos separate sacred from profane, by special places and days.
However, primitive peoples do separate natural and supernatural, and some do not have sacred things.
Totem is sacred, has totem symbol, and represents clan. Clans have larger groups {phratry, Durkheim}, and their totems have groups. All things in life have categories, and categories have totems, so all things link to form unity. Totemism is thus the first religion.
People feel power in totem {totemic principle}. The power is mana in Melanesia, manitou in North America, orenda, or wakan. The power is not spirit or person. Soul is part of totemic principle and is conscience. Sacrifices are to share in power.
Social events and ceremonies concentrate on totem but actually unify clan in shared excitement and joy. Rituals reinforce idea of community. Rituals can be about death {piacular ritual} and allow society to heal.
Ancestor worship is about past souls and clans and leads to the idea of gods, which are for and about tribes, not clans. Tribes often have supreme god.
Societies have principles not derivable from biology or psychology. Society is a collective of norms and is more than sum of individual effects.
He lived 1843 to 1904.
He lived 1864 to 1929 and studied primary groups and how self relates to groups.
He lived 1864 to 1920. Social norms reflect meanings in human actions. Social actions reflect ethics, not economics.
Ethics
Ethics depends on responsibility. People want to have higher status.
Politics
Stabilizing factors for society are group traditions, common laws, constitutional law, and absolute value standard. Real or supposed personal qualities, such as sanctity, courage, heroism, character, savior, wisdom, and insight are destabilizing factors. Primitive societies have traditional religion, and societies that had crisis have rationalized religion. Protestant ethics underlie capitalism. Authority types are traditional, charismatic, and bureaucratic-rational-legal. Authority is attitude or norm. Authority does not necessarily have power to cause behavior in others. Legitimate power depends on tradition, person's charisma, or law and reason.
He lived 1840 to 1910 and studied customs and mores.
He lived 1866 to 1951.
He lived 1863 to 1931 and was of Chicago School. He developed symbolic interactionism. People and things have several roles and functions simultaneously in society {sociality} [Mead, 1934].
He lived 1889 to 1974.
He lived 1874 to 1953.
He lived 1892 to 1957 and studied technological stages and social stages.
He lived 1893 to 1953.
He lived 1916 to 1962.
He lived 1897 to 1983 and created symbolic interactionism [1937], with Herbert Blumer at University of Chicago (Second Chicago School), and their predecessors W. I. Thomas and Robert Park (First Chicago School).
He lived 1898 to 1987.
He lived 1911 to 2000.
He lived ? to 1963, emphasized symbolic interactionism at Iowa School [1946 to 1973], and developed Twenty Statements Test (TST).
He lived 1900 to 1975.
He lived 1902 to 1992.
He lived 1902 to 1983.
He lived 1900 to 1969.
He lived 1905 to 1999.
He lived 1922 to 1982.
He lived 1922 to ?.
She lived 1906 to 1975 and studied under Jaspers and Heidegger. Human activity is labor to stay alive, work to make things for society, and action to create new things and work with others. Action is more important than thought.
.
He lived 1922 to 1983.
He lived 1898 to 1970.
He lived 1912 to 2002 and founded Common Cause [1970].
He lived 1905 to 1983.
He lived 1927 to ?.
He lived 1932 to ?.
He lived 1925 to ?.
.
He lived 1840 to 1916.
He lived 1841 to 1931.
He lived 1863 to 1947.
He lived 1897 to 1952.
He lived 1886 to 1959.
He lived 1893 to 1947 and was of Sunday Circle in Hungary. He was "father of sociology of knowledge" and studied what people feel about society.
He lived 1895 to 1988.
He lived 1902 to 1979. Social systems {cultural system} have values, symbols, and beliefs and influence people {structural functionalism}. Groups fulfill four functions {functional imperatives}: adaptation to physical and social environment, goal attainment, society integration, and motivation to perform social roles according to expectations {latency, Parsons}.
He lived 1914 to 2000 and studied primary group status and roles.
.
He lived 1909 to 2002 and studied alienation.
.
He lived 1915 to ?.
He lived 1917 to 1980.
He lived 1912 to 2001.
He lived 1915 to 1994.
He lived 1914 to 1970.
He lived 1917 to ? and studied achievement.
He lived 1911 to 1980 and studied mass communications.
He lived 1925 to ?.
Outline of Knowledge Database Home Page
Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225