Religion includes gods, soul, life-after-death, and religion types.
Traditionally, founded Carvaka, Charvaka, Lokayata, Laukayatikas, or Lokayatikas School of materialism, a non-Vedic atheistic system. Sense gratification is good.
Mithraism emphasized loyalty, fasting, temperance, strict ethics, baptism, sacred banquets, and mysticism. Mithra was an ancient god of India and Iran, who slew a sacred bull in a grotto.
He lived 216 to 276 and proclaimed himself intercessor {Paraclete} with God. He emphasized asceticism, prayer, and understanding of God. He combined Christianity and Zoroastrianism gnostically, so spirit is Light, and matter is Dark {Manichaeism}. Sassanid Shah Sapor I supported him. After Sapor I died, Zoroastrianism Magi persuaded next shah to reject Manichaeism.
He helped develop the Ajivikai system.
He lived ? to -500 and developed the Ajivikai system, which is similar to Jainism and is non-Vedic. Ajivika are followers of Gosala [-485]. Ajivika ended [1300].
Mixcoatl or Cloud Serpent was god of the hunt, Milky Way, stars, or heavens in Aztec and other Mesoamerican religions. Perhaps, a Chichimec lord or Toltec ruler, of Culhuacan in central Mexico, conquered Teotihuacán [900].
Quetzalcoatl or Feathered Serpent was god of wind, creativity, and fertility in Aztec and other Mesoamerican religions. Perhaps, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl ruled 923 to 947, was Mixcoatl's son, and founded capital at Tula, 60 km north of Mexico City. It had 30,000 and 60,000 people, with temples and palaces. Opponents of worshiping Quetzalcoatl drove him from city, and he went to Chichen Itza [990].
He lived 1753 to 1826 and founded Shaykhi Shi'a religious movement. Shi'a believes that there were twelve Imams starting with Ali ibn Abu Talib and ending with Muhammad al-Mahdi, who will return before judgment day as the Mahdi or Mihdi. Shaykh Ahmad said he communicated with the coming Mahdi. Shaykh Ahmad or his successor Siyyid Kazim predicted that the Mahdi was coming. Shaykhi began to search for Qa'im or Promised One of the Shiites and said it was the Bab [1844]. One was Ali Muhammad or the Báb, who said he was the Mahdi and Persia executed him [1850]. Bahá'í Faith comes from Shaykh Ahmad, Siyyid Kazim, the Báb, and then Bahá'u'lláh. Another was Haji Karim Khan of Kirman, who escaped punishment and had no followers.
He lived 1819 to 1850, was Muslim, and announced that soon person was to come to unify all people [1844]. Later he said he was Mahdi. Iranian government killed him [1850].
He lived 1817 to 1892 and was Babi. He then claimed he was the Promised One of all ages [1863]. He had to leave Iran, and Ottomans imprisoned him in Acre, Lebanon.
He lived 1844 to 1921 and was Baha'u'llah's oldest son. Baha'u'llah appointed him to lead Bahaism [1892 to 1921].
He lived 1897 to 1957 and was Abdu'l-Baha's grandson. He led Bahaism [1921 to 1957] and set up the administrative order.
He is Avarih or Wanderer.
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He lived -563 to -483. He is also Buddha {Enlightened One} {Awakened One}, Arahat (conqueror or worthy one), Siddhartha (accomplisher of aim), Tathagata (arriver at truth), and Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni {silent sage of the Sakyas}. He had ten major disciples.
He was wealthy during youth, but he left his easy life at 29 [-534] to see the world and encountered sick man, old pauper, and dead man. His Great Renunciation of luxury was at Kapilavastu [-534]. He began to search for the meaning of life and found enlightenment by understanding source of suffering. He had Great Struggle to find knowledge. According to Buddhism, while under the Bo tree at Gaya or Uruvela, Kama-Mara, god of desire and death, tempted him but did not affect him. He completely introverted. He stayed seven days and nights under the tree and then moved to new tree and stayed there seven days and nights. He experienced the Great Awakening and became the Buddha [-538]. He felt state of nothingness with no individualness and total mystical knowledge {nirvana, Buddha}. He repeated this five more times. When he again saw the world, he realized that what he had experienced was beyond speech. He felt to talk about it was vain. According to Buddhism, Brahman, the Creator, implored him to teach all creation, awaken it from the dream of life, and show it the Path, though few can take it. He proclaimed his doctrine at Sarnath and died at Kusinagara [-483].
He advocated ascetic life, with no rituals, no castes, and no gods. He did not claim to be god, but his followers worshipped him.
Monk communities began.
He was Buddha's disciple.
Buddhist monks established discipline and law.
Buddhist monks established discipline and law.
Buddhist monks opposed second-council laws. One group felt that only observing Rules of Vinaya or Canon Law achieved Buddhahood. The other group felt that Buddhahood was in everyone already and anyone can develop it.
First Buddhist Council resulted in division into Mahayana and Hinayana.
He was Greek king of Sagala in Bactria [-155 to -130]. Nagasena persuaded him to become Theravada Buddhist.
He persuaded Milinda or Menander, Greek king of Sagala in Bactria [-155 to -130], to become Theravada Buddhist.
Way of the Elders or Lesser Vehicle is mainly practiced in south Asia.
Mahayana Buddhism allowed less stringent practices than Theravada Buddhism. Mahayana means greater vehicle. Hinayana means lesser vehicle.
Three Baskets {tripitaka} {tipitaka} are Vinaya Pitaka, Sutra Pitaka, and Abhidharma Pitaka. Buddhist oral teachings are Theravada Buddhism scripture. Other schools are Mahayana and Vajrayana. Vinaya Pitaka is practices and ethical code for monks and nuns. Sutra Pitaka has Buddha's life, dialogues, and teachings {agamas} {nikayas}. Anguttara Nikaya is in Sutra Pitaka fourth division. Abhidharma Pitaka (Toward Higher Thought or Toward Reality) systematically investigates mind and matter. Tripitaka parts include Cullavagga, Dipavamsa, Mahavagga, Mahavamsa, Niddesa, Parivara, Patisambhida, and Sataka.
He wrote Tripitaka first basket, which has rules for the sangha monastic community.
He wrote Tripitaka second basket, Sutta Pitaka, Sutrapitaka, or Basket of Discourses, which has the Five Nikayas. Longer Nikaya and Shorter Nikaya are first two parts and are Buddha's dialogues. Third Nikaya is Anguttara or Progressive Addition, which states doctrines by units, then pairs, threes, fours, then to tens. Fourth Nikaya is Satlyutta or Clusters, which states Logia or doctrines by subject. Sutrapitaka contains the Girimananda Sutra (Discourse to the Venerable Girimananda), Mahanidana Sutra (Great Discourse on Origination), Mangala Sutra (Discourse on Blessings), Metta Sutra (Discourse on Loving-Kindness), Ratana Sutra (Discourse on Precious Jewels), Samannaphala Sutra (Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship), and Theranama Sutra (Discourse on Knowing the Better Way to Live Alone). Fifth Nikaya is in Sutrapitaka or third basket.
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Mahayana sutras include Ratnagunasamchayagatha, Vajracchedika, Lankavatara, and Vimalakirti-nirdesa. Philosophical arguments are in Shastras.
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Buddhism split into Hinayana, or little boat, and Mahayana, or great boat. Buddha worship began. Gods are Buddhas of past and future.
Buddhist missionaries arrived.
Buddhism is Fotism in China.
He was later Sautranika. Words are always general, never particular, and serve to negate {exclusion theory of meaning}.
Tantras, mantras, and yantras are about Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi. Shaivism agamas, such as Kamika, are about Shiva. Shakta tantras are about Devi. Vishnuism samhitas are about Vishnu.
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Council established Mahayana Buddhism.
He founded Madhyamika, Sunyavada, or Voidist School of Mahayana Buddhism. He used the dialectic to break fixed conceptions and to prove that all signs are meaningless, that all is and is not, and that all statements are refutable {Doctrine of the Void}.
Epistemology
To have true knowledge, people should detach from everything and be aware of Emptiness. Using logic to prove contradictions forces coming to the concept of emptiness, neither being nor non-being. Therefore, all things are empty. They come into being for moments but are dependent. In emptiness, there is no contradiction and no strife.
Knowledge depends on external-object reality, but their reality comes from ability to know, so everything depends on varying perspectives and is not certain. Cause and effect are both meaningless. Pain and pleasure are both meaningless.
Ethics
The highest goal is the Void, but Void is neither void nor not-void, because it is indescribable, with no goal, no burden, and no conflict.
Middle Way is balanced moderate life. People should not attach {non-attachment} to the 75 dharmas.
Metaphysics
Only one Void exists, so no metaphysics is true. Only relations exist. Things only have momentary existence. Being or substance is always ordering and forming {dharma, Nagarjuna}, with no permanent order or form.
Buddhism arrived.
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He developed Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School of Mahayana Buddhism, was Asanga's half-brother, and worked on logic.
He lived 300 to ?, developed Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School of Mahayana Buddhism, and was Vasubandhu's brother. Perhaps, Maitreyanatha wrote some.
Buddhism arrived.
He lived 384 to 414, was Kuramajiva's student, and started and led Hua-yen School [410 to 414], a Zen precursor. He was of Maadhyamikas School, Madhyamaka School, San-lun tsung, or School of the Three Treatises. The schools used Nagarjuna's Madhyamika-sastra (Spiritual Texts on the Middle Way) and Dvadasadvara or Twelve Gates and Aryadeva's Sata-sastra or Treatise in One Hundred Verses. Another influence was Yogacara.
School depends on the Avatamsaka Sutra or Flower Garland Sutra. All comes from dharma (higher thought). Leaders were Seng-chao, Tao-sheng, Tu-shun [557 to 640], Chih-yen [602 to 668], Fa-ts'ang [643 to 712], Ch'eng-kuan [737 to 838], and Ts'ung-mi [780 to 841].
He lived 360 to 434, was Kuramajiva's student, and headed Hua-yen School after Seng-chao [414 to 434].
Large Buddhist temples and cave temples began in China.
He lived 480 to 540 and was of Mahayana-Buddhism Yogacara School. He replaced older logic {trairuupia} with implication {vyaapti}.
He started rational T'ien-t'ai School in China, which uses Lotus Sutra Fa-hua Ching or Saddharmapu.
Buddhism arrived and affected art, architecture, music, and writing.
He was Dignaga's student and listed cognition types and how they relate to their objects.
He lived 617 to 686, in Sil Lah period, united Buddhist-sect teachings, and added Tao and Confucian ideas. He was one of the Ten Sages of the Ancient Korean Kingdom. He followed the way of the flow of the wind {poong-ryu-do}, using the idea of nothingness {mu, Buddhism} to eliminate dualities and achieve unity.
He lived 774 to 835 and introduced Tantric Buddhism to Japan as Shingon or True Word School. All people can attain enlightenment, by meditation, mantras {shingon}, and hand movements. Enlightenment requires ten stages. The final stage is identity with the Buddha {Mahavairocana}. He was a calligrapher. Perhaps, he invented Japan's hiragana script.
He brought Mahayana Buddhism to Tibet, and there he is second Buddha.
From the rational T'ien-t'ai School in China, he went to Japan and founded [806] the Tendai School in Japan.
He derived metaphysics and epistemology from Tantric Buddhism and developed Kashmir Shaivism. Female energy resides in the body, and people need to become aware of this knowing, wishing, and acting power.
Aesthetics
He invented an aesthetics theory {theory of rasa} {rasa theory, Abhinavagupta}.
He lived 1133 to 1212, broke with royal court's Tendai Buddhism and military's Shingon or Tantric Buddhism, and introduced Pure Land Buddhism based on Shan-tao or Zendo [1176]. Honen, Dogen, Nichiren, and Honen's disciple Shinran developed popular Buddhism {Kamakura Buddhism}. Honen developed Jodo-shu, and his disciple Shinran derived Jodoshin-shu.
He lived 1173 to 1262, was Honen's student, founded Pure-Land sect, and said Amida has all power.
Buddhism arrived.
He lived 1870 to 1966 and translated many Buddhist books into English.
He lived 1879 to 1950 and was Tantric Buddhist.
He lived 1935 to ?, became Dalai Lama [1940], and went into exile in India [1959], when China took over Tibet.
He lived 1931 to ? and tried psilocybin, then LSD, with Timothy Leary and Ralph Metzner in 1960's.
By legend, Bodhidharma was 28th in line of transmission from Buddha's disciple Kasyapa, founded Chan or Zen in China as mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism, and was first Patriarch of Zen. His story is in Jingde Record of the Transmission of the Lamp [527]. Chan says that all people have Buddha nature, but thought and feeling obscure it.
He lived 487 to 593 and was second Patriarch of Zen Buddhism.
He lived ? to 606 and was third Patriarch of Zen Buddhism [580 to 606].
He lived 580 to 651 and was fourth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism.
He lived 601 to 675 and was fifth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism. His student Faju [638 to 689] started Northern School.
He lived 637 to 713 and was sixth and last Patriarch of Zen Buddhism [675 to 713].
He lived 655 to 713 and was Hui-neng's disciple. Zen-Buddhism Soto School depends on his teachings.
He lived 660 to 740, was Hui-neng's disciple, and taught Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien.
He lived 670 to 762, was Hui-neng's disciple, started Southern School, and opposed Northern-School creation.
He lived 677 to 744, was Hui-neng's disciple, and started Hongzhou School. Zen-Buddhism Rinzai School depends on his teachings.
He lived 700 to 790 and was Hsuan-chueh Hsing-ssu's disciple.
He lived 709 to 788 and was Nan-yueh Huai-jang's disciple.
He lived 720 to 814, was Chao-chou's disciple, and founded first Zen community. Chao-chou was previous Zen-Buddhist leader.
He lived 748 to 834 and was Ma-tsu's disciple.
He lived ? to 850 and was Pai-chang's disciple.
He lived 778 to 897 and was Nan-chuan's disciple.
He lived 830 to 867, was Hung-po's disciple, and led to Rinzai School. He started the shout "Ho" or "Kwatz".
He lived 980 to 1052.
He lived 1141 to 1215 and introduced Zen to Japan, as Rinzai School, building on Ch'an Buddhism in China. He began tea ceremony and brought green tea from China to Japan.
He lived 1200 to 1253, came from China, and started Zen-Buddhism Eiheiji or Soto School. "Enlightenment and practice are one." All things already have enlightenment. All things have their times.
He lived 1394 to 1481.
He lived 1518 to 1591 and perfected tea ceremony.
He lived 1573 to 1645 and perfected Zen swordsmanship. He emphasized that mind should not focus or rest {no mind} but be ready to act at any time and place.
He lived 1622 to 1693 and was Zen master.
He lived 1685 to 1768 and was Zen poet and painter. People need to meditate during all activities.
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A supernova or planet conjunction happened within several years of Jesus' birth.
He was Mary's husband.
She was Jesus' mother.
He lived -28 to 30, preached the Messiah's coming [25], and baptized Jesus.
He lived -4 to 29 and was probably born in Nazareth. His name was Joshua or Savior, common Hebrew name. Jesus is Greek for the Hebrew name Joshua. Messiah means Anointed or Savior in Hebrew. Christ is Greek for Anointed. Immanuel means "God with us" in Hebrew. His ideas and life are Christianity's basis.
According to the Bible, he was born to Joseph and Mary of Nazareth in a stable when they traveled to Bethlehem to pay taxes, and he lay in the stable feeding trough {manger, Bible}. However, he was more likely born in animal quarters in a relative's house in Nazareth.
His father and he were carpenters. According to the Bible, at age 12 he argued with Hebrew elders about scriptures. At age 30, he began preaching the Messiah's coming and that the weak and poor will triumph if they are righteous, on Judgment Day. He had 12 disciples, Peter, John, Judas Iscariot, and others. According to the Bible, he conjured enough food for crowd from several loaves and fishes, turned water into wine, and raised Lazarus from the dead. He preached Sermon on the Mount and Beatitudes. He told parables about the Talents, the Prodigal Son, and the Good Samaritan. He said, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" {golden rule, Jesus}. At age 33, he came to Jerusalem. Crowds greeted him on Palm Sunday. He denigrated the Scribes and Pharisees. He broke with Judaism and drove out moneychangers at the Temple. He rested on the Mount of Olives with Mary and Martha, Simon the Leper's sisters. Sanhedrin priest council condemned him to death for blasphemy. Judas betrayed him for 30 pieces of silver. Pontius Pilate had him arrested in Garden of Gethsemane. He had his Last Supper on Thursday. The people did not choose to let him go free when Pilate let the people choose. The hostile crowd chose Barabbas. Romans crucified him on Good Friday, between two thieves. He carried his cross to Golgotha, the Crucifixion site. He spoke seven sayings while on the cross, such as "Father forgive them for they know not what they do." and "My God, why hast thou forsaken me?" Soldier speared him to make sure he was dead. Joseph and Nicodemus took him to tomb. He was not there when Mary Magdalene came on Easter Sunday to embalm his body, the Resurrection after three days. According to the Bible, forty days after Resurrection, he ascended into heaven {Ascension, Bible} after revisiting the disciples.
He advocated Jewish law but opposed harsh interpretations. He used Essene ideas. Christian laws have same ideas, but different emphases, than Jewish laws.
He was Jesus' disciple and went to India [52 to 72]. Someone killed him.
The Bible tells that, after Jesus' death, the 11 remaining disciples saw tongues of fire and received the gift of speaking in many tongues {Pentecost}, and began evangelizing.
The people freed convicted criminal, instead of Jesus, when Pilate let them choose.
They received Jesus' body from the cross.
He lived ? to 33 and was Jesus' disciple but betrayed Jesus to the authorities with a kiss.
She found Jesus' tomb empty.
They gave care to Jesus and were Simon the Leper's sisters.
He lived ? to 64. Jesus said of his disciple Peter, "Upon this rock, I will build my church."
He was the most mystical of Jesus' disciples. He probably did not write Gospel of John.
Some Christian writings, gospels, letters, and prophecies are not in the Bible.
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John used this work.
He was one of the first seven church deacons and became a martyr [34].
He lived 10 to 63, was born and educated in Tarsus, wrote in Greek, founded Christian ideas and organization, visited churches in Asia Minor and Greece, and died in Rome [67]. Saul became the apostle Paul after his conversion [35] by a light ray. He visited Jerusalem [37], stayed at Tarsus [37 to 43], stayed at Antioch [43 to 44], visited Jerusalem [44 or 45], took his first mission [45 to 49], visited Jerusalem [49 or 50], took his second mission [50 to 53], visited Jerusalem [53], took his third mission [53 to 57], visited Jerusalem [57], faced arrest [57], went to Rome [59], was captive at Rome [60 to 62], and took a mission [62 to 66]. Someone killed him [67]. He said Jesus was God and wrote about soul versus body.
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Christians decided to preach to Gentiles, without requiring or following Jewish customs or laws. Jesus's brother James and Peter were there. Perhaps, Paul was there. They baptized Christians. Christians performed eucharist Last-Supper rites. Christians believed that Jesus rose from the dead, will return to Earth soon for Last Judgment, and will then give them eternal life.
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He received epistle from Paul, his friend.
It is oldest gospel of the Bible.
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It has 100 Greek letters and has same wording as Matthew and/or Mark in the Bible.
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Luke wrote biblical history in Greek.
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He lived 37 to 101.
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Christianity separated into Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church, and Serbian Orthodox Church, among others.
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Churches were at Antioch, Alexandria, Laodicea near Antioch, Jerusalem, Edessa, Nicaea, Ephesus, Byzantium, Athens, Sparta, Thessalonika, Syracuse, Hippo Regius, Naples, Rome, Lugdunum (Lyon) in southeast France, and Canterbury. Hippo Regius (Bona or Annuba, Algeria) is west of Carthage. Bishops and deacons began. The Seven Churches of the Apocalypse are Ephesus, Laodicea, Pergamum, Philadelphia, Smyrna, Sardis, and Thyatira.
People discovered Gnostic tracts north of Luxor [1945].
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Arian, Sabellian, Manichaean, Pelagian, and Donatist controversies were about Trinity and Incarnation.
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He lived 50 to 117 [98 to 117].
He was bishop of Hierapolis.
He lived 69 to 155.
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He was first Alexandrian Gnostic.
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He was bishop of Athens and first Christian apologist.
He was of Valentinian School.
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He lived 100 to 165 and became Roman Catholic saint. Knowledge requires special revelation from God, because senses and demons make reason and nature obscure.
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He lived 110 to ? and started Marcionites. They rejected Old Testament.
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He lived 110 to 180.
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He opposed Gnostics and Marcion.
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He was bishop of Hierapolis.
He was Platonist.
It has story of the Blessed Blandina.
He was Greek, was bishop of Lugdunum (Lyon) in France, and is a Father of the Church.
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He was bishop of Antioch.
He lived 154 to 223. Concerning Fate or Book of the Laws of the Countries is about him.
Pseudo-Clementines used this work.
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He was bishop of Hieropolis.
He lived 160 to 225 and was Christian Apologist. He said, "I believe what is absurd" {credo quia absurdum est} because it showed the work of God.
Epistemology
People cannot know revelation by thinking, and revelation has no connection with philosophy. Only faith can give religious belief {fideism}, not reason.
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He was Patriarch of Antioch [191 to 211].
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He lived 170 to 247.
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He lived 160 to 236 and was bishop of Rome.
Doctors of the Church are first Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine and later Pope Gregory. Ambrose was bishop of Milan. Augustine was bishop of Hippo.
Gregory the Illuminator founded it near Mount Ararat.
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He lived 256 to 336, became a priest [313], and said Jesus was not eternal and was lower than God.
Roman Empire allowed Christianity.
He lived 275 to 339, was Pamphilius' student [240 to 309], was bishop of Caesarea [314 to 339] in Palestine, and cross-referenced the Gospels. He was never pope [309 to 310]. Caesarea is on coast between Haifa and Tel Aviv.
Heretical Trinity doctrine opposed Athanasius' and Eusebius' doctrine.
Council proclaimed that Jesus was God and man and that Athanasius' and Eusebius' Trinity doctrine is true. Council rejected Arianism.
Eugenios or Mar Augin founded it on Mt. Izla above Nisibis in Mesopotamia.
Church had seven councils.
Epiphanius [315 to 403] founded it. He was bishop of Constantia or Salamis in Cyprus [367 to 403].
He lived ? to 352 and became Catholic patron saint of children.
He lived 297 to 373, was bishop of Alexandria [328 to 373], was a Doctor of the Church, and was for orthodoxy during Arian crisis. He wrote orthodox Catholic doctrine of Trinity and Incarnation. Jesus had body and same substance as god {homoousion}, whereas Arians said Jesus was not like god.
First monastery is in Red Sea Mountains of northeast Egypt.
Caesarea is capital of Cappadocia, which is in east-central Anatolia or Asia Minor.
Martin of Tours founded first monastery, in France.
Martin of Tours founded it.
He lived 340 to 397, was bishop of Milan [374 to 397], was a Doctor of the Church, and became a Roman Catholic saint. Church is independent of state.
He lived 340 to 420 and was a Doctor of the Church.
Monastery founded by Augustine was west of Carthage.
Augustine founded it. Thagaste was in Numidia and is Souk Ahras, which is where Algeria meets Tunisia.
He lived 390 to 459, was ascetic, and sat on a pillar.
Paulinus [354 to 431] and his wife Theresia founded it.
Orthodoxy said pictures of God are not sinful. Iconoclasm said not to use pictures of God. Greek Church used icons, but western church attacked this custom.
Some early Christians {Monophysite} believed that Jesus was person with human nature and did not unite divine and human {Monophysitism}. Severus [? to 538], Dioscurus [? to 454], Timothy Aelurus [? to 477], Peter Mongus of Alexandria [? to 490], and Timothy IV the Patriarch of Alexandria [517 to 535] were Monophysites. Greens were for monophysitism, which said Christ was only body or only spirit. Blues were for orthodoxy, which said Christ was both body and spirit.
Orthodoxy said Christ had one will and nature. Monotheletism said Christ had just one will but two natures, divine and human.
Orthodoxy said Mary was mother of God. Nestorianism said Mary was not mother of God, because Jesus was born a man.
Christianity came to Wales.
Christianity came to Scotland.
He lived 354 to 420 and was Christian. People have free will and can choose salvation. Heaven is reward for virtue. Will is completely free. There is no original sin, and people can be perfect without God's grace {Pelagianism, Pelagius}. There is no grace of God. Alternatively, people can just freely will and believe {semi-Pelagianism}.
He lived ? to 444, was bishop of Alexandria [412 to 444], was a Doctor of the Church, and opposed Nestorius. Jesus united divine and human in one person {orthodox doctrine}.
He lived 386 to 451 and was Patriarch of Constantinople [428 to 431]. Jesus was two separate persons, one divine and one human {Nestorian controversy, Nestorius}. There was no Virgin Birth. Council of Ephesus [431] rejected this heresy and exiled him, so he started Nestorian churches.
He lived 385 to 461. He brought Christianity to Ireland [433] and built many churches. He used the shamrock to explain the Doctrine of the Trinity. He set up commission to compile Irish law [441]. He converted Ireland to Christianity [457] and is Catholic patron saint of Ireland.
Stoudios or Studius was from Rome and founded it.
He lived ? to 538, was Patriarch of Antioch [512 to 518], and was Monophysite.
Finnian [? to 548] founded it in Meath in Leinster in east Ireland.
Benedict founded it under strict rules. Monte Cassino is south of Rome.
He lived 480 to 547 and organized first monastic system, Benedictines, at monastery south of Rome. Monks had to work, study, and pray {Benedict's Rule}. He became Roman Catholic saint. Benedictine Order had copies in many places, and some had women.
Cassiodorus founded it in south Italy.
Caesarius of Arles [468 to 542] was bishop [502 to 542].
The Three Chapters were against Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and letter of Ibas to Maris. Facundus, Bishop of Hermiane wrote Defensio trium capitulorum or Defense of the Three Chapters. Emperor Justinian issued edict anathematizing the Three Chapters [543 or 544].
He lived 521 to 597, came from Ireland to Scotland, set up a Christian monastery on Iona island [563], and became a Roman Catholic saint.
He lived ? to 604. King Ethelbert of Kent became Christian.
Celtic Church and Roman Catholic missionaries converted Saxon, Jute, and Angle kings to Christianity from base in Canterbury.
Gall or Gallen founded it. It is in Steinach Valley in east Switzerland.
Bobbio is Bobium or Ebovium and is in Emilia-Romagna in north Italy. Columba established it.
Aidan founded it on island in Northumbria in northeast England.
Synod chose Roman Christianity over Celtic thought.
Patriarch of Constantinople was head of Greek Orthodox Church, and emperor appointed him. The four main patriarchies were Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Church leaders married. Orthodox monks prayed and practiced discipline, as original Egyptian monks had done in third century. Greek Church used icons {iconoclasm}, but western church attacked this use.
Roman and Greek churches met but did not agree.
After Charlemagne's coronation, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches split.
He lived 815 to 885. Czechs and Slovaks became Orthodox.
He lived 826 to 869 and invented Cyrillic alphabet with Methodius. Czechs and Slovaks became Orthodox.
Duke William the Pious of Aquitaine founded Benedictine abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul at Cluny in Burgundy in northwest France [910].
Benedictine order reorganized under modified rules. 300 Cluniac monasteries [1150] were under abbot of Cluny.
Tarn-region Neo-Manichaean sect emphasized strict morals and the Bible and opposed Catholic-Church worldliness. It first appeared at Synod of Orléans [1022] and faced a crusade [1209].
He lived 1000 to 1088 and was Nominalist. He believed that the bread and wine cannot change into Jesus' body and blood, because their qualities stayed the same.
Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches split.
He lived 1050 to 1122 and founded Nominalism and Scholasticism. He believed that the Trinity was three distinct objects, not one. Council at Reims [1092] condemned the heresy.
Cistercian order founded a monastery.
He lived 1081 to 1151 and built St. Denis Abbey, first Gothic church. He started Gothic art and said that art is necessary to see truth and beauty. He counseled Louis VI and Louis VII and was their historian. St. Denis is in Ile-de-France, near Paris.
He lived ? to 1217, sold all his goods, arranged for his family [1176], began to preach, and started Waldenses, Vaudois, Valdesii, Vallenses, the Poor, Leonistae, Poor Men of Lyons, Sandaliati, Insabbatati, Sabbatati, or Sabotiers, which emphasized strict morals and the Bible and opposed Catholic-Church worldliness. They congregated in west Piedmont in north Italy by 1200 to 1210 and exist now.
He lived 1182 to 1226 and founded Franciscan religious order.
He lived 1170 to 1221 and founded Dominican monastic order [1216].
One pope returned to Rome from Avignon, and the other pope stayed.
Lutheran church is Aristotelian in philosophy.
Catholic Church became less powerful as sects broke away and nations formed. Printing lessened church-school influence. Italian politics weakened church.
Reformed churches are Augustinian in philosophy.
Sects {Protestant} separated from Roman Catholic Church, differently in different countries: Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian, and Moravian. Current Protestant denominations include Lutheran, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Mormon, Jehovah's Witnesses, Anglican, Episcopal, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, Unitarian, Moravian, and Anabaptist.
He lived 1483 to 1546 and began Protestant Reformation when he posted his 95 Theses on church door at Worms [1517]. He broke away from Roman Catholic Church, started Reformation, and founded Lutheran Church. He helped found educational system and translated Bible into German. Faith is more important than good works. Grace of God redeems sin. Reason, tainted by original sin, is inimical to God.
He lived 1491 to 1556 and founded Society of Jesus {Jesuit} monastic order [1539], to serve the pope as teachers and missionaries. He later became Catholic saint.
He lived 1509 to 1564, broke away from Roman Catholic Church, and founded Calvinism.
God has all authority, dictated the Bible, and created good world. People are sinful. Christ can redeem them. People are predestined to heaven or hell. People should work hard and try to be successful. Redemption is by faith alone, but thrift, industry, order, and steadfastness are virtues. God knows all actions at time's beginning {predestination, Calvin}. The Bible has religious authority, not Pope.
Christians came as missionaries.
He lived 1497 to 1560 and broke away from Roman Catholic Church. He used Aristotle to make philosophy for Protestantism.
Reform movement started in Catholic Church. School included Ignatius of Loyola and Girolamo Savonarola.
Bishop Challoner revised it in 18th century.
He lived 1548 to 1617 and was Jesuit.
People use reason to choose right from wrong under obligation to God.
Law
Law is about will of superior commanding obligation from inferiors. Laws can be natural, divine, human, and eternal. Human laws require compliance, require payment for non-compliance, grant privileges, and grant authority and legitimacy.
Metaphysics
Reality is individual essences expressed in entities.
Bible version includes only books in Masoretic and Vulgate texts. Other Christian books are in Apocrypha.
He lived 1598 to 1672 and was mystic. Word sounds have meaning, which can lead to deeper understanding.
He lived 1703 to 1758 and was Puritan.
Epistemology
People know the primary and secondary qualities from God and so can perceive harmony and beauty.
Ethics
God gives sense of virtue and kindness to all beings. God knows all infallibly, so all events are necessary, not contingent. People have no free will, though God is not the cause and is not forcing choice.
Metaphysics
All things depend on God, which is eternal and everywhere and conscious. All is deterministic.
He lived 1688 to 1772, had visions, and started Swedenborg cult, which was popular in Romantic era.
He lived 1853 to 1900. People can realize their perfect human natures and so become like Jesus, both God and man {godmanhood}. World-soul {Sophia} left God to make the world and will return to God as world progresses, a Gnostic idea.
He lived 1878 to 1947 and followed Gurdjieff {Fourth Way School}.
He lived 1872 to 1949 and was mystic. Means {legominism} can transmit information about certain events of long-past ages. People struggle, through working on themselves, to awaken conscience and create soul.
He lived 1886 to 1968. God is unknowable but sent Jesus to those that had the grace of God to know the truth of the gospels.
He lived 1906 to 145 and was Protestant theologian.
He lived 1892 to 1971 and was Protestant theologian. Man depends on goodness of God to overcome sin.
He lived 1886 to 1965 and was Protestant theologian. Expressions of self are attempts to fulfill self-potential {entelechy, self}.
He lived ? to 97 and built papacy power and Holy See of Rome.
He lived ? to 352 and increased Holy-See power.
He lived ? to 417 and increased Holy-See power.
He lived ? to 461 and increased Holy-See power.
He lived 540 to 604, encouraged monasticism, established clergy laws, developed Gregorian chant or plain song, and held off Lombards. He refused to recognize Patriarch of Constantinople and so split eastern from western Church.
He lived ? to 655 and built church and papacy power.
He lived 820 to 867 and increased papal authority. Roman aristocrats controlled papacy.
He lived 1020 to 1085 and allied with Normans of Italy. His reforms lost support and Henry IV of Germany led opposition. Henry IV took Rome [1083] and set up anti-pope. Robert Guiscard and Normans in Italy rescued Gregory VII but then lost Rome again. As pope, he started reform {Hildebrandine reform}, which ended simony, lay bishop investiture, celibacy-vow violations, and priest marriage. He transferred pope's election to College of Cardinals.
He lived 1025 to 1100. Henry IV of Holy Roman Empire installed Guibert of Ravenna as pope, after making Pope Gregory VII flee Rome.
He lived 1035 to 1099. As pope, he started First Crusade and continued Pope Gregory VII's church reforms.
He lived 1105 to 1181. As pope, he excommunicated Frederick Barbarossa [1176].
He lived 1161 to 1216. As pope, he tried to make church supreme over all rulers. He first gave Holy Roman Empire to Otto IV, then Philip of Swabia, then Otto IV, and then Frederick II. He struggled with Frederick II for power. He put King John of England under interdict until he submitted and declared Magna Carta invalid. Philip II of France resisted but then followed divorce law.
Innocent III reorganized papal territories and gained Tuscany but did not get north Italy cities.
He encouraged Fourth Crusade and recognized Latin Empire of Constantinople set up by Fourth Crusade, but Osmanli Turks helped Byzantines regain Constantinople.
He authorized Franciscan Order, who had mission to the poor, started by Francis of Assisi.
He lived ? to 1227. As pope, he authorized Dominican order for scholarship and preaching and revised Franciscan order.
He lived 1195 to 1254. As pope, he deposed Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire at synod. He led fourth Lateran Council [1251] on church laws.
He lived 1235 to 1303. As pope, he struggled with Philip IV of France over taxes and interfered in Florence.
He lived 1264 to 1314. As pope, he dissolved Knights Templar and formulated canon law. Philip IV of France controlled him.
Philip IV of France blocked Pope Boniface VIII and moved papacy to Avignon.
He lived 1397 to 1455. As pope, with Frederick III of Holy Roman Empire, he ended Great Schism by Concordat of Vienna, which undid Council-of-Basel acts. He rebuilt St. Peter's Cathedral. Nicholas of Cusa tried to reform German Church.
He lived 1405 to 1464. As pope, he struggled with Louis XI of France and tried to unite Europe against Ottoman Empire.
He lived 1414 to 1484. As pope, he struggled with Louis XI of France, fought Lorenzo de' Medici in Pazzi Conspiracy, and founded Sistine Chapel.
He lived 1431 to 1503. As pope, he was Lucrezia Borgia's and Cesare Borgia's father and was an art patron.
He lived 1443 to 1513. As pope, he restored papal rule of Papal States and fought Italian Wars. He called fifth Lateran Council, which condemned the idea {Gallicanism} that French king was supreme over church in France. He patronized art.
He lived 1475 to 1521 and was pope [1513 to 1521].
He lived 1475 to 1534 and was Medici. As pope, he first opposed but then crowned Charles V as Holy Roman Empire emperor. He opposed Henry VIII's divorce.
He lived 1468 to 1549. As pope, he founded modern Inquisition and censorship and began Catholic reform.
He lived 1476 to 1559. As pope, he altered papacy.
He lived 1504 to 1572. As pope, he united Spain and Venice against Ottoman Empire. He implemented Third-Council-of-Trent reforms.
He lived 1502 to 1585. As pope, he began Gregorian calendar, established new canon law, and led Fourth Council of Trent. Fourth Council of Trent established modern Catholic Church foundation. He did not deal with German Protestants.
He lived 1521 to 1590. As pope, he improved Papal-States administration and beautified Rome.
He lived 1568 to 1644 and was of Barberini family.
He lived 1876 to 1958. As pope, he opposed Communism in Italy.
He lived 1881 to 1963. As pope, he modernized Catholic Church. Church became more ecumenical at second Vatican Council.
He lived 1897 to 1978.
He lived 1920 to 2005.
He lived -551 to -478 and established Chinese-law foundations.
Confucianism is about how to live practical and wise life. Do not do to people what you would not like them to do to you {golden rule, Confucius}. Maintain tradition and social order, such as loyalty to ruler and family, conformity to social behavior rules, and sympathy for others. Become educated, do one's duty, have virtue, have courage, obey, and be deferent. People should have self-discipline, not be selfish or seek profit, have filial piety, tell truth, have knowledge, be benevolent and humane, and have jen. People should have correct behavior {li, Confucius}, which leads to correct inner states. People that have proper behavior for their social station cause imitation by others, out of sense of correctness, and people, society, and government then follow correct way of living, because they have virtue. Good government requires wisdom and righteousness.
Universe obliges people to be moral {Decree of Heaven} {t'ien ming}. All things in universe have fates {Destiny} {ming} that determine social position, wealth, health, and so on. People should accept fate and concentrate on living morally and benevolently {tao, Confucius} {Way of the Sages}.
He lived -372 to -289 and was Confucian. People innately have compassion, are courteous, are good, love parents, respect older people, care about other people, and have sense of right and wrong. They innately can have shame and can be benevolent, dutiful, ritualistic, and wise. Ethical sense develops naturally, and society only needs to assist development.
He lived -298 to -238 and was Confucian. People are naturally selfish, envious, hateful, and desirous, and so cause conflict, violence, crime, and wanton behavior. People develop desires that society must regulate. Society imposes order and so helps people gain more satisfaction overall.
He lived -179 to -104 and was Confucian. Confucianism became China's political system and religion [136] {Mandate of Heaven}. Human life and universe both have good and bad, active and passive, and yin and yang and so have cycles.
Confucianism became dominant.
The Five Classics are Shu ching or Canonical Book of Documents by Wu ching, Shih ching or Canonical Book of Songs, I ching or Canonical Book of Changes, Li Chi or Canon of Rites, and Ch'un-Ch'iu or Spring and Autumn Annals.
He lived 768 to 824, was neo-Confucian, followed Mencius, and was against Buddhism. He wrote in old style prose {gu wen}, as did Meng Jiao [751 to 814].
He lived 772 to 841, followed Mencius, and was against Buddhism.
He lived 1017 to 1073 and combined Neo-Taoism and Confucianism to make ideas used in later Neo-Confucianism.
He lived 1011 to 1077 and was neo-Confucian.
He lived 1020 to 1077 and was neo-Confucian.
He lived 1032 to 1085, was brother to Ch'eng I, and was idealist neo-Confucian.
He lived 1033 to 1107, was brother to Ch'eng Hao, was rational Neo-Confucian, and started new Confucianism, Ch'eng-Chu School. All things have unchanging pattern and changing matter. People need to live properly and have education to discern the pure patterns in impure matter.
He lived 1130 to 1200, wrote the Four Books, and started neo-Confucian Ch'eng-Chu School, which blended Ch'eng-I ideas, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism.
All things have unchanging pattern and changing matter. Principles {li, Chu Hsi} {t'ai ch'i} interact with matter and energy {ch'i, matter}. People need to live properly and have education to discern the pure patterns in impure matter.
The Four Beginnings are feeling shame, deferring to others, sharing other's feelings, and perceiving. The Four Virtues are being wise, loving humanity, acting correctly, and following ritual.
The Seven Emotions are hate, love, happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and wanting. The Four Books are Lun-yü, Ta Hsüeh, Chung Yung, and Meng-tzu.
He lived 1138 to 1193, was Neo-Confucian, and blended Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in Lu-Wang School.
Sung Dynasty used Neoconfucianism to make social relations rigid and formal and to emphasize knowledge and learning.
He lived 1472 to 1529, was Neo-Confucian, and blended Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in Lu-Wang School. He used moral principles to unify close-relationship types. Mind or heart {hsin} is the most-important thing. People should observe and control their minds.
He lived 1489 to 1546 and taught the sijo poet Hwang Chini. Great harmony {taehwa} unites the "i" and "ki" of neo-Confucianism.
He lived 1501 to 1570. He emphasized effort and devotion {chisung}, as neo-Confucian mental strength {kyung} with emphasis on action. Process allows the "i" and "ki" of neo-Confucianism to derive from each other.
He lived 1536 to 1584. Process allows the "i" to become the "ki" of neo-Confucianism.
He lived 1583 to 1657, was Neo-Confucian, and established it as religion during Tokugawa Shogunate.
He lived 1619 to 1692 and was Confucian.
He lived 1635 to 1704 and was Confucian.
He lived 1724 to 1777 and was Confucian.
Aryan immigrants replaced native culture in north India. Vedic people relate to Achaeans. They had beliefs and gods similar to those in Homer.
Vedas are in Sanskrit, describe Vaidika or Vedic religion, and emphasize nature and joy of living. Veda means knowledge. Vedas are the revealed texts {sruti, text}. Vedic philosophy demonstrates connections {bandhu} among astronomical, physiological, and spiritual. Universe is infinite. Knowledge can be about objects and paradoxical or about perceiving subjects with no paradoxes.
Hymn {sama, hymn} {saman} or hymns {samagana} is the basic format. Fire priests {Atharvan} sang incantations. Vedas have mantra sections. Vedas have older hymns and ritual texts {Samhita}. Brahmanas and Upanishads are later.
In the Manu Samhita, Manu was father of humans and founded Vedic culture between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers. Gheranda Samhita is about yoga. Dakshinamurti Samhita is about the mantra {shri vidya} of the Goddess Tripurasundari or Lakshmi. Charaka Samhita [-400 to -200], Sushruta Samhita [-400], Ashtanga Sangraha [-400 to -300 by Vagbhata] and Ashtanga Hridayam [-400 to -300 by Vagbhata] are about Ayurveda.
Traditional Indian epics {Mahakavyas} including Mahabharata and Ramayana, fables or stories {Puranas}, laws {Dharma Sastras}, aphorisms {Sutras}, philosophies {Agamas} including Mantras, Tantras, and Yantras, philosophies {Dyasanas} including Vedanta, science texts, and grammar texts are "what is remembered" {smriti} {human writings}, which includes everything not in Vedas {divine writings}. The eighteen main Smritis are Manu Smriti {Laws of Manu} written by Manu, Yajnavalkya Smriti written by Yajnavalkya of Mithila, Parasara Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Daksha Smriti, Samvarta Smriti, Vyasa Smriti, Harita Smriti, Satatapa Smriti, Vasishtha Smriti, Yama Smriti, Apastamba Smriti, Gautama Smriti, Devala Smriti, Sankha-Likhita Smriti, Usana Smriti, Atri Smriti, Saunaka Smriti.
Arthaveda, Nitishastras, or science of statecraft is Upaveda in Rig Veda. Most important is Kautiliya's Arthashastra [-300], stating kshatriya rule and society doctrine.
In Indian tradition, Paila collected the Rig-Vedic hymns as directed by Vyasa. Vyasa wrote the Rig-Veda Samhita.
Sarasvati River is a river in many hymns. Dravidians or Dasa were enemies of Vedic Aryans.
In Vedas, he was Vyasa's father, was Kapila's student, received Vishnu Purana from Pulastya, taught Maitreya, and wrote Dharmasastra about law.
He was Scholiast. Vedas are spiritual knowledge, mythology, and Yajna Mantras (Ritual Mantras). Deva means donor, luminous, and heaven resident {Dyusthan}. Devas are Agni in earth, Vayu or Indra in sky, and Surya (Sun) in heaven.
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Before the Bhagavadgita begins, Arjuna, the Pandavasi leader, goes to survey the field of battle and his enemies, the Kauravas. His charioteer is Lord Krishna, Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer of the World, who then sings Song of the Blessed Lord.
He wrote most Upanishads. His disciples were Gargi Vacaknavi and Vidagdha Shakalya.
Hindu texts can be about guru's teaching to disciple {upanishad, guru}. Upanishads are part of the Hindu Shruti (Revealed) scriptures and are about meditation and philosophy. Veda Brahmana or Aranyaka added older Upanishads. Recent Upanishads were separate.
Manu, Brihaspati, Ayasya and Narada are Vedic sages in Upanishads. Yajnavalkya is in most Upanishads. He taught negating thoughts {neti-neti} to reach truth. Uddalaka Aruni, Shwetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada, and Sanat Kumara are other sages in Upanishads.
The oldest and longest conversation is Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad or Great and Secret Teachings of the Forest, about world and humans. Manukya Upanishad is about "silence" {manukya} and the syllable OM. The Upanishads include Questions, Lord, and By Whom?
Upanishads use metaphors, such as metaphor of the chariot and metaphor of two birds on one tree. 95-year cycles synchronize Sun and Moon cycles. Yajna means sacrifice.
He lived -800 to -740 and wrote book about altar construction {Sulbasutra}, which required pi and square root of two and constructed circles from rectangles and squares from circles.
He founded Vaisesika and set rules for Hindu living under caste system. Castes were saint or sage {mahatma, caste}, priest {brahmin, caste}, noble {ksatriya, caste} {khathruja, caste}, merchant {vaisya, caste}, worker {sudra, caste}, and person with no caste {harajan, caste} {pariah, caste} {outcast, caste}, whom no one should touch {untouchable, caste}.
He lived -600 to -540 and solved general linear equation.
He founded Samkhya.
He started Nyaya and was logician.
Vishnu is supreme god. Ikshvau is ancestor of Solar Dynasty.
In Vedas, he was born at end of Dvapara Yuga, was a legendary sage, incarnated Lord Krishna, wrote the Mahabharata for understanding, wrote the eighteen Puranas, established teaching through Upanishads or Upakhyanas, and arranged Vedas. He wrote the Bhagavata for Devarshi Narada. He established the three paths of Karma, Upasana, and Jnana. Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura are his sons. There have been twenty-nine Vyasas. Gurupurnima or Vyasa Purnima or Full Moon of Vyasa is Vyasa's birthday.
Brahmanic-period [-900 to -500] Brahmanas or Brahmin Books, such as Shatapatha Brahmana, are in Hindu revealed texts {Sruti} {Shruti} and describe and interpret Rig-vedic rituals. Rig-veda has Aitareya-Brahmana (Shakala shaka) or Kaushitaki-Brahmana (Bashakala shaka). Samaveda has P Brahmana and Sadv Brahmana (Kauthuma) or Jayminiya Brahmana. Yajurveda has the Brahmanas in the samhitas about Krishna: Maitrayani samhita, Carakakatha samhita, Kapisthalakatha samhita, and Taittiriya samhita. Yajurveda has Taittiriya-Brahmana, Shatapatha-Brahmana (Shukla, Vajasaneyi Madhyandina), and Shatapatha-Brahmana (Shukla, Kanva). Atharvaveda has GopB (Paippalada). The prose myths and legends are about Brahman {highest reality}, explain theology, and state sacrifice meanings. Brahma Sutras have four chapters, each with four sections. Brahma Sutras are for understanding Sruti.
By tradition, Vyasa wrote them.
In Vedas, he was Vyasa's student. He wrote Purvamimamsa, Upadesa, Rudramsa, Shasthamsa, and Saptamsa sutras; Varnada Lagna and other lagnas; and Shakti Yoga and Raja Yogas. He founded Mimamsa. Sanskrit is the true language and leads to truth. Language is not conventional or veil. Sanskrit sounds have meaning, so hymns and mantras are themselves magic.
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He wrote about Hinduism.
He lived -350 to -275.
He wrote animal fables.
Natyasastras tell how to play heroes and other characters and how to interpret emotions in all situation types. Experiencing art equals tasting object essence {rasa theory, Bharata}. Abhinaya (toward Drama) is about dramaturgy. Bharata Natyam, Khathakali, and Kudiattam Yaksagana are India dance forms that follow Bharata's technique and his concept of Abhinaya. Rasananda is ultimate bliss. The older Shilpa Shastras describe how to perform the Agama or liturgical texts and include Vishnudharmotara Purana, Samaranganasutradhara, Sukranitisara, and Shilpa Ratna.
He wrote about Upanishads.
He wrote about Upanishads.
He wrote about Upanishads.
He wrote about Upanishads.
Shaivism Hinduism is an old Hindu school and is mystical, devotional, and pantheistic. Shiva is highest god. Ganesa, Ganesha, Lord of Hosts, Ganapati, or Lord of the Ganas was Shiva's and Parvati's (Sakti's) son. Ganas are followers of Shiva.
Devotees are Saivas or Saivites. They can worship Siva as lingam (light) universe symbol. They can worship Siva Nataraja, Lord of the Dance. Tamils of south India and Sri Lanka are often Saivas. Benares is holy city. The twelve Jyotirling or Golden Lingam (Golden Lights) shrines are famous. A Saivite temple is at Chidambaram in south India. In Middle Ages, Nayanars or Nayanmars saints from south India developed Saivism. By tradition, the legendary sage Agastya spread Saivism and Tamil language.
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By tradition, Vyasa wrote them. They are about history {purana, history}, such as gods, devotions, Ayurveda, Jyotish, cosmology, dharma, karma, and reincarnation. Ayurveda is about medicine. Jyotish is about light or astrology. The eighteen Puranas have three groups of six. Rajasika Puranas or Brahma Puranas include Brahma, Brahmanda, Brahma Vaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, and Vamana. Markandeya includes Devi Mahatmyam, important for Shaktas. Sattvika Puranas or Vaishnavite Puranas or Vishnu and the Goddess Parvati Puranas include Vishnu, Bhagavata or Srimad Bhagavata, Naradeya, Garuda, Padma, and Varaha. Padma defines Sutra. Tamasika Puranas or Shiva and Shakti Puranas include Vayu, Linga, Skanda, Agni, Matsya, and Kurma. All Puranas speak of the goddess Lakshmi.
There are different existences {loka}, such as heaven {Svarga} and hell {Naraka}. Svarga is for demigods {devas}, and King Indra rules it. The King of Justice, Dharmaraj or Yama, rules Naraka. Satyaloka is for Brahma, the highest existence. Vaikuntha is for Vishnu, for those who have left material worlds.
Mahapuranas and Upapuranas are about kings, heroes, and gods. Sthala Puranas are about temple creation and history. Kula Puranas are about castes.
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Traditionally, Vyasa wrote one of the 18 puranas.
He lived 570 to 651 and studied semantics.
She was Tantric Buddhist. In Nepalese Buddhism, one can gain transcendence through erotic behavior {mahasukha}.
He wrote about Upanishads.
He first expounded Advaita Vedanta and was Govinda's teacher. Govinda taught Sankara.
He was Gaudapada's pupil and studied Vedanta.
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He founded the later Prabhakara School of Mimamsa and taught Salikanatha, who wrote Prakaranapancika. The first Mimansa school was the Kumarila School.
He lived 686 to 745, studied Mimamsa, and wrote about realism.
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He lived 788 to 820, was Govinda's pupil, and founded Advaita Vedanta or Non-dualist School. He founded the Dashanamis, who renounce world to meditate.
A phrase {That art Thou} is in Vedas and means that individuals are part of consciousness. Selves and the Self are one, with no God.
World, language, and sense qualities that people experience are real but are illusory and produce ignorance. People must suppress desires to gain real knowledge. Only the Brahman is ultimate reality.
He lived ? to 841, wrote commentaries on the six Hindu systems, and established Nyasa.
He combined the six Hindu systems.
He wrote about Hinduism and invented proofs of gods. All things have cause and must have been made, requiring maker. To make things, atoms must bond, requiring conscious agent {argument from atomic combinations, Udayana}. Earth is stationary and not falling, as Earthly things fall, requiring holder. People have skills, requiring first teacher. People can understand writing and can write, requiring absolute knowledge.
From Dvaitadvaita School, he derived a Difference and Non-Difference philosophy {Bhedabheda}. He began a Vaisnavism sect {Sanaka-sampradaya}. All things differ but unify in God.
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He lived 1017 to 1137 and started Visistadvaita Vedanta or Qualified Non-Dualism or Vishishta Advaita or Non-dualism of the Differentiated. He led south-India Shri Vaishnavism. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as embodiment of Brahman.
People are separate from God and want to experience and love God. People can feel god-like in dependence on God. People should live actively in the world without trying to control anything or get something. People perform acts to please gods, which are Brahman manifestations.
God, matter, and souls all exist in unity. Matter comes from creative powers of God.
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He lived 1238 to 1317, was dualist during the Bhakti movement, tried to refute Carvaka philosophy, and started Vedanta Tattvavada, True Philosophy, Advaita, Dvaita, or Dualist School.
He said that Vedanta, including Upanishads, Bhagavadgita, and Brahmasutras, revealed that individual self {atman} and ultimate reality {brahman} differ, rather than being the same {non-dualist}. Independent reality {svatantra} is Brahman, and dependent reality {paratantra} is souls {jivas} and objects {jada}. He said this was realistic based on people's perceptions {tattvavada}. God is not the world and is not self. The self is the same as other selves and is not the same as object. All objects differ and are not God or the Self.
He lived 1268 to 1380, headed [1331] Smarta Order, and was minister for King Bukka of Vijayanagara Empire. Sankaracharya founded the Smarta Order. The sixteen philosophy systems are in order of knowledge: Carvaka, Buddha, Arhata or Jaina, purna-prajna, Nakulisa-Pasupata, Saiva, Pratyabhijna, Rasesvara, Vaiseshika or Aulukya, Akshapada or Nyaya, Jaiminiya, Paniniya, Sankhya, Patanjala or Yoga, Vedanta or System of Sankaracharya, and Advaita Vedanta or System of Sankara.
He lived 1315 to 1387 and was court minister.
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He lived 1479 to 1531 and founded a Vaishnavite cult in Rajasthan and Gujarat. He believed Shuddhadvaita-School monism, in which Krishna or Bala Krishna or Vatsalya Bhava or Purushottama is Brahman. He emphasized grace {pushti} and devotion {bhakti, Vallabha}. The highest grace {Maha Pushti} {Anugraha} can attain release. The body of Krishna {Akshara} {Satchidananda} emits sparks to make things.
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He lived 1836 to 1886, followed Vedanta, and was a mystic. All religions are about uniting with God. People can be divine by serving others and God, expressing one spirit. His student was Swami Vivekananda.
He lived 570 to 632, was born in Mecca, was merchant-traveler, was epileptic, and founded Islam. He is also Mahomet, Mahmoud, Mehemet, or Muhammad.
He meditated in the mountains [610] and one day became inspired on Mount Hira. He had vision that the Angel Gabriel instructed him to preach new faith centered on one true God, Allah. He proclaimed that there was one god and that he was the messenger and last prophet. He taught that believers in Allah submitted to God {Muslim, Mohammad}.
He had a vision of going to Mi'raj heaven on al-Borak, a winged animal.
Tribal leaders opposed him. He fled to Medina [622] after losing battle in Mecca, flight called the Hegira. He gained rule in Medina but then suffered another defeat and escaped to cave. People did not find him in cave because he did not destroy spider's web. He conquered until he won Hejaz, region near Medina. He went to Mecca [630] and overthrew Caaba or Kaaba, the old sanctuary. He saved the black stone, called Hajaru'l-Aswad. Mecca became religious center. He later conquered Damascus. He died at Mecca [632] at his favorite wife Ayesha's house, after preaching from Mount Arafat.
She lived 642 to 699 and was Mohammad's favorite wife and Abu Bekr's daughter.
She lived 615 to 632, was Mohammad's daughter, and married Ali.
After losing battle in Mecca, Mohammad fled to Medina [622] {Hegira}.
Islam split into Shia and Sunni. Shia said Ali was true caliph. Sunni said caliph should be from Mohammed's direct line.
He lived ? to 748 and founded Mu'tazila school. Second leader was Amr of Ubayd [? to 761]. Baghdad schools opposed it.
Scholars wrote it in Baghdad. Hadith determine how to live as Muslim {Sunnah}. There also are histories and biographies, commentaries on Qur'an, and legal analyses.
Scholars wrote it in Baghdad.
He lived 1058 to 1111 and was main Sufi philosopher. He identified twenty false philosophical claims, later discussed by Averroës.
Islam came with traders and became main Indonesia religion.
He lived 1164 to 1240 and followed Sufi principles and unity of divine being {pantheism, Arabi}.
He lived 1703 to 1792 and started Salafi or Wahabi sect, which reformed Sunni Islam and emphasized simple life with no rites.
He lived 1924 to 1996 and wrote about Sufism.
By legend, he was first Jainist saint. His son was Gommata or Bahubali.
By legend, he was the 22nd Jainist saint.
He lived -872 to -772 and was the 23rd Jainist saint.
He lived -550 to -480, founded Jainism [-526], is the 24th and last Jainist saint, is Jina or the Victor, and was in non-Aryan ksatriya caste. After 12 years of self-abuse, he attained enlightenment, omniscience, and release. He had 11 disciples.
He lived -1392 to -1272, stated Mosaic Law, and codified criminal law. The Bible tells that he received the Ten Commandments and that he was Hebrew leader before Joshua.
Hebrew Bible has Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. The Nevi'im Prophets are Joshua, Judges, First Samuel, Second Samuel, First Kings, Second Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekial. The Twelve Minor Prophets are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Ketuvim or Writings {Hagiographa} are Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.
The Hebrew-Bible first five books are the Five Books of Moses, Pentateuch, Hamisha Humshei Torah, Humash, or Chumash. A scroll with the five books is a Sefer Torah. Torah books are Bereishit or Genesis, Shemot or Exodus, Vayikra or Leviticus, Bemidbar or Numbers, and Devarim or Deuteronomy. Bereishit has creation story. Shemot has flight from Egypt. Devarim has Moses' speeches. Torah can mean all written and oral law, including Tanakh, Mishnah, Talmud, and midrashic literature.
Priests held councils {sanhedrin}. A Sanhedrin condemned Jesus to death for blasphemy [29]. Tribes held councils {Great Sanhedrin}.
He lived 50 to 135, wrote about meditation and mysticism, was a Mishnah scholar {Tannaim}, and was main oral source for Mishnah and midrash halakha. He visualized God's bright robe {chalub}. He linked traditional practices to biblical texts. God foresees everything, but people have free choice, though God knows the choice.
He led rebellion against Rome [132 to 135].
He lived 135 to 217, codified Mishnah or Oral Tradition, and was Sanhedrin president.
Talmud or Shas is Mishnah with Gemara.
Mishnah or Repetition has Hebrew texts from rabbis and records Jewish oral law [200]. Judah haNasi or Judah the Prince or Rabbi compiled it in Aramaic. It does not cite written law.
Gemara records comments on Mishnah by Palestine and Babylon rabbis [200 to 500]. Rabbis compared written and oral law.
Yerushalmi Gemaras differ from Bavli Gemaras, so there is Jerusalem Talmud (Palestinian Talmud) and Babylonian Talmud. Rav Muna and Rav Yossi wrote Yerushalmi Gemara in Israel [350]. P'nei Moshe and Korban ha-Eidah are comments.
Rav Ashi and Ravina wrote the Babylonian Talmud [250 to 550] in Babylon [550].
Savoraim or Rabbanan Savoraei were post-Talmudic rabbis, who worked for next 250 years, making final version [700]. Rashi or Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac [1040 to 1105] commented. Tosafot, Additions, or Supplements are additional comments compiled by French and German rabbis. Talmud also has analyses by Maharshal or Solomon Luria, Maharam or Meir Lublin, and Maharsha or Samuel Edels. The Rosh by Asher ben Jehiel and The Rif by Isaac Alfasi are legal commentaries in Talmud.
Additions to Mosaic Law resulted from scripture searches {midrash, search} for meaning, using four methods {Talmud, method}. One is for simple meaning {peshat, meaning}. One is for hidden meaning {remes, meaning}, of seemingly unmeaningful words. One is for the homily, prophecy, and sermon meaning {derush}. One is for metaphysical meanings, theosophy, and religious mysteries {sod, meaning}.
Midrash is about Hebrew-Bible legal and non-legal texts, using peshat or direct meaning, remez or hint, derash or exegesis, and sod or mystic. Tannaitic texts are the following. Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael is about Exodus [300 to 500]. Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai is about Exodus [300 to 400]. Sifra is about Leviticus and is by Rabbi Akiva [250]. Sifre is about Numbers and Deuteronomy and is by Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Ishmael [250]. Sifre Zutta or Small Sifre is about Numbers [300 to 330]. Talmudic texts are the following. Midrash Qohelet is about Ecclesiastes [800 to 850]. Midrash Esther is about Esther [940]. Pesiqta is about Pentateuchal and Prophetic lessons [700 to 750]. Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer is about events in Pentateuch [700 to 800]. Tanchuma or Yelammedenu is about Pentateuch [800 to 900]. Midrash Shemuel is about Books of Kings. Midrash Tehillim is about Psalms. Midrash Mishle is about Proverbs. Yalqut Shimeoni is about scripture. Seder Olam Rabbah or Seder Olam is by Rabbi Yose ben Halafta and goes from universe creation to Jerusalem Second-Temple construction. Yalkut Shimoni is collection about scriptures by Shimon ha-Darshan [1200 to 1300]. Tanna Devei Eliyahu is about commandments and prayer and includes Seder Eliyahu Rabbah and Seder Eliyahu Zuta. Midrash Rabbah has Rabboth or Great Commentaries about the Bible, Bereshith Rabba or Genesis Rabbah [500 to 600], Shemot Rabba or Exodus Rabbah [1000 to 1200], Vayyiqra Rabba, Leviticus Rabba [650], Bamidbar Rabba or Numbers Rabba [1100 to 1200], Devarim Rabba or Deuteronomy Rabba [900 to 1000], Shir Hashirim Rabba or Song of Songs Rabbah [800 to 850], Ruth Rabba [800 to 850], and Eicha Rabba or Lamentations Rabbah [600 to 700].
They were Jewish rabbis {rav} {rab} and judged cases.
He lived 352 to 427, led academy at Sura, and started compiling the Gemara of Babylonian Talmud.
He lived ? to 421 and helped compile the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud.
He lived ? to 499, led academy at Sura, and finished compiling the Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud.
He lived ? to 525 and finished compiling the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli).
Hebrew scholars and rabbis {Masoretes} {Masorets} in Tiberias compiled Hebrew-Bible critical notes. Karaite ben Asher family preserves Masoretic Text. Masoretes invented the current Hebrew vowel-notation system.
He lived 882 to 942, led Talmudic Academy, was systematic, and studied language. God knows all but does not force or cause people's actions.
He lived 939 to 1038, expanded Akiva's work, and explored higher consciousness.
He was pietist.
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He lived 1240 to 1305 and was Jewish mystic.
Sun worship began. Sun was disk with spokes. Organized religion, religious ceremonies, and priests began. Ship carried the Sun.
Sky-god bull, ram, stallion, or boar is a procreation symbol. Sky-god ax or thunderbolt symbolizes power. Sky-god sword or spear is a procreation symbol. The idea of marriage of sky god with earth goddess began.
Gods spoke, were intelligent, had human passions, and were moral.
Priests replaced shamans, as year and seasons became important. It had sacrifices. Ancestor worship had dolmen stone graves. The myth of a divine animal, man, or woman that dies to give edible plants to people began. The myth of an Earth goddess of fertility and the dead began. The myth of a great serpent of rain, wind, new foods, and wisdom began. The myth of a door to the land of the dead began.
Ashur is principal god of war and empire.
Ea was god of air. Main gods were god of wisdom and god of water. Other gods were god of the plow, goddess of fertility, and goddess of war. Tiamat, Tibir, Tagtug, or Tibiria was a fish-woman and main Sumer goddess. She was similar to Tanit of Phoenicia, Anat of Sumer, Isis, and Gaia. Sumer had temples, sacrifices, and spring festival. Kings were also priests. The idea of afterlife began.
Potnia is main Crete and Mycenae goddess and Poseidon's mother.
Tabiti is main Celt goddess. Lorelei is a Celtic fish-woman {mermaid}, who lured men to danger. Mermaids are Celtic in origin. Druids believed in immortality and angels.
Mannus, first man and Tuisto's son, started the Germanic tribes Ingvaeones, Irminones, and Istvaeones. Tuisto, Tuisco, Thuisco, or Thuiskon, derived from the number two, started all Germanic tribes, as a hermaphrodite. Perhaps, he/she was the giant Ymir. Mannaz or Manwaz means human being in Proto-Germanic, from Proto-Indo-European man.
Astarte was goddess of love and fertility. Her consort was Adonis.
Cybele was the gods' mother and a fertility goddess. Her consort was Attis.
A new religion {Orphic religion} developed from Bacchus cults. Metis was creator. Zeus was chief god.
Wodan was god of the dead, magic, inspiration, and war. Tiwaz was god of sky, law, and battlefield. Alaisiagae were female spirits of battle under the war god. Later, Alaisiagae became Valkyries.
Delphic Oracle had advised against fighting Persians, but Greece won, and Apollo cult declined.
He lived 1796 to 1867.
Emperor Temmu commissioned it.
Shinto is Way of the Spirits {Kami-no-michi}.
Earlier history book Kojiki, Furukotofumi, or Records of Ancient Matters [680] is in Chinese.
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He lived 1666 to 1728 and started Kogaku School, which studied original Confucian writings.
He lived 1627 to 1705 and started Kogaku School or Study of Antiquity School, which studied original Confucian writings.
He lived 1730 to 1801 and started return to Shintoism and ancient myth {kokugaku}, in Kokugaku or Kogaku School [1764]. Foreign influence should not change Japanese culture. Sorrow results from passing away {mono no aware, sorrow}, as in classical Japanese literature.
He lived 1776 to 1843 and started return to Shintoism and ancient myth, in Kokugaku or Kogaku School.
He lived 1469.1123 to 1520 and began Sikhs in west Punjab. Babur imprisoned him [1520]. His companion was Mardana.
He lived 1666 to 1708, was the 10th Sikh guru, and emphasized militarism.
During Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought included Confucianism, logicians, Mohism, Taoism, Legalism, and School of Yin-Yang.
He founded Taoism. All things reverse direction. People should minimize their wants to minimize losses and gain more.
Lieh Tzu lived -400 to -300. Work is Taoist.
He explained and popularized Taoism Tao-Teh-King. If people have judgments based on differing perspectives, no method is available to conclude which judgment is correct. Therefore, truth is elusive. People should not have expectations or perspectives. Distinctions among ideas are not important. Emotions about life and ideas should minimize.
He lived -179 to -122, was a Taoist philosopher, and was Kao-tsu's grandson and emperor's cousin. Kao-tsu or Liu Pang founded Western Han dynasty.
He lived 226 to 249.
He lived 221 to 300 and was Neo-Taoist.
He lived ? to 312, was Neo-Taoist, and used Hsiang Hsiu's text.
He lived -660 to -583, received knowledge on Mountain of Holy Conversations, and codified laws. He converted Vishtaspa, a northeast-Iran king. Someone killed him, but his son-in-law, Jamespa, preserved his sayings in the Avesta, Zoroastrian scripture. Zand is Avesta comments. Zarathushtra composed the 18 poems of Gathas, the oldest Avesta part, and Yasna Haptanghaiti or Seven-Chapter Sermon. By myth, the god Ahura Mazda gave him the law.
Bundeheshn is about creation, legends, and geography. Dinkart is about religious deeds, laws, and rituals and summarizes the Avesta. Datistan-e-Dinik, Arda-Viraf Namak, and Ayatkar Zariran are three texts about King Gashtasp, his brother, his commander Zarir, and their war against Arjasp, the Turanian king. Karnamak-i-Arttacksher-i-Papakan or Karnameh Ardeshir Babakan is about Ardeshir, Shahpur, and Hormoz, who were three Sassanian kings.
Aturpat was Hemet's son.
He was Farukhzat's son.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225