He lived 1856 to 1939. He invented a psychodynamic topographic mental model [1900], with rational conscious awareness, rational preconscious memories, and irrational unconscious desires. Later [1926 to 1933], he invented a psychodynamic structural model, with id ("it" in German), ego ("I" in German), and superego ("above-me" in German).
Dreams have meaning, can be about infantile wishes and thoughts, and have understandable symbols. Dream has images {manifest dream content}. Dreams have underlying ideas {latent dream content}, which are wishes, memories, and fantasies about emotional reactions that happened in early infancy. Latent content transforms into manifest content by condensation, displacement, dramatization, and representation, followed by secondary elaboration or revision {dream work}. Dream work tries to evade latent-content censorship by choosing acceptable manifest content. Dream transforms many or separated ideas into one image {condensation, dream}. Dream can attribute emotional significance to unimportant object {displacement, dream}. Dream can transpose thought into imagery. Dream can represent abstract ideas metaphorically by concrete images {representation, dream}. Dreams further distort or elaborate after waking {secondary elaboration}. Symbolic representations {primal symbolism} can be consistent in human dreams. Such symbols always have censored meaning, independent of manifest content, for example, symbols for male and female genitalia. Repetitive dreams reenact traumatic episode in recent experience.
In diagnosing hysteria, he used free association to reveal unconscious desires and used proper interpretation to find hysteria causes. Neurosis can result as people actively try not to remember painful, distressing, or stressful events or try to repress desires, typically sexual desires {libido, Freud}, and become unconscious of their motivations {repression, Freud}. Desires begin in infantile sexual molestation {seduction theory}, incestual feelings, or sexual desire {polymorphous perversity}.
However, many supposed experiences are imaginary fantasies that started in early years, even in infancy.
Morals block instinctual motivations, causing conflict, which causes repression of motive into unconscious. Mind can repress memories, fantasies, and thoughts associated with painful, embarrassing, or anxious emotions. Mind breaks links between ideas and emotions, but mind cannot repress emotions, which build up unless released. From fear of punishment, drives cause anxiety. Repression causes desires to express in unusual or pathological ways. Repression of bad memories becomes available after age five.
Repression causes amnesia about childhood.
In neuroses, instinctual energy expresses itself in hysteria. If people can perceive what the ways actually mean, using analysis supplied by trained person, pathology can stop {psychoanalysis, Freud}. Revealing underlying emotion and drive can treat hysteria {abreaction, Freud}. He treated hysteria using hypnosis. Hypnosis can reenact experiences that cause hysteria, to express emotions freely {catharsis, emotion}. In psychoanalysis, hypnosis involves identification.
Humor is mixture of incongruity, relief, and conflict theories [1905].
Sexual development starts in infancy with oral phase, then anal phase, and then sexual phase. Development can stop at any stage. Young children love opposite-sex parent and hate same-sex parent {Oedipus complex, Freud}. Child development can stop if rivalry with same-sex parent does not resolve through identification with parent. Child development can stop if sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent do not transfer to sexual partner outside family. Relationship between mother and child before this development stage affects oedipal impulses.
People start with unconscious instinctual energy {id}, for needs, drives, impulses, and emotions, which uses no logic, ignores external reality, and depends on the pleasure principle. They develop rational conscious mental structures and processes {ego, Freud}, which reject id, from id and adapt to maximize pleasure and minimize unpleasant. They consciously learn morality, social values, and unconscious identification with parents and their values, which cause conscience, shame, guilt, and internal standard that regulates moral conduct {super-ego} {ego-ideal}, which represses bad thoughts and gets energy from id. Superego is part of ego and develops before age five or six {oedipal period}. Judgments and prohibitions internalize {introjection, Freud} in early childhood, before child is able to question them. Feelings of hostility towards either or both parents neutralize. Conscience originates in identifying with parents and repudiating childhood. Later, teachers, admired friends, and social and moral education influence superego. Successful personality development {ego strength} depends on defenses against instinctual drives and on adaptations to social situations. People can learn to accept society external authority more than their internal drives and values {adaptation, society}.
Unconscious mind contains repressed fantasies, memories, and thoughts, which can be self-destructive. Unconscious impulses {death-wish} can wish to end individual existence.
People have instinctual sexual-drive libido. Sexual energy builds up in body with unmet biological needs {cathexis}. Pleasure results when biological-need gratification discharges stored energy {pleasure principle}. Frustrating gratification builds stored energy {hypercathexis} and causes unpleasure. Failure to protect peripheral receptors from excessive or prolonged stimulation can cause unpleasure. Libido can channel into socially acceptable behavior {sublimation, desire}.
Theology
Eros is life instincts of sex libido, hunger, and thirst. Thanatos is death instincts of aggression, self-destruction, and sadism. Totems represent father, in oedipal conflict. Taboos represent, at first, renunciating incest. Religion involves love and fear of God. God is like father to religious believers, who are like his children. People wish this state to be true and so have illusion.
He lived 1867 to 1927, studied sensation and attention, and trained in introspection. He invented Titchener-circles illusion. He tried to catalog all mental elements, to find consciousness structure. Mind combines units to make objects and perceptions {structuralism, Titchener}.
He lived 1875 to 1961, founded a psychoanalysis variant {analytic psychology}, and studied psychoanalysis, symbols, myth, and cognitive styles.
People have effects {personality complex} that make a personality type. Personality types are meditative, inhibited, and withdrawn {introversion, Jung}; outgoing, active, and lively {extroversion, Jung}; or mixture {ambiversion, Jung}. Personality types depend on two opposites: feeling compared to thinking and sensation compared to intuition.
People develop in historical and cultural context, which gives life meaning, dignity, and purpose. People know unconsciousness culture, which has central objects {archetype, culture}. People also have primal symbols, which are innate and independent of history and culture. Dreams and visions include archetypes and symbols with emotional content, which all people share and which indicate destiny.
People can undergo crisis in middle life and need to achieve mental integration {individuation, Jung}.
Aesthetics
Spontaneous emergence of archetypal forms shows that people have innate symbols universally accepted as beautiful. Aesthetic sensibility developed over millions of years, as people learned to make and use tools and to undertake cooperative projects.
He lived 1866 to 1934 and studied unconscious self.
He lived 1886 to 1968, reviewed sensation and perception, and studied consciousness physical dimensions.
He lived 1901 to 1981 and interpreted Freud by comparing unconscious to language structures. Spoken language creates person.
He lived 1919 to ?. Reticular formation can be conscious. Homunculus can be new substance. It can need previous homunculi to know later ones.
He studied backward referral in time, Libet's delay, neuronal adequacy, readiness potential, and time-on theory [Libet, 1993]. Neural events can make experiences have unity {conscious mental field} (CMF). CMF can affect neurons and allows subjective experience.
He lived 1913 to ? and studied split brain. Brains are neural-network collections. They regulate each other. Consciousness emerges from activities in neural networks, and consciousness regulates networks.
He lived 1925 to 1998 and talked about peyote and consciousness.
He lived 1927 to ? and studied autonoetic consciousness and noetic consciousness [Tulving, 1983].
Consciousness is like computer operating system.
He lived 1920 to 1997. Consciousness arose when brain hemispheres acquired different specialized functions and unified them. Even at Homer's time, mind was not aware of itself. People seem not to have will or mind. They acted based on thoughts or impulses seemingly from separate places, which they attributed to gods. Left and right hemispheres were separate. As left hemisphere specialized for language, it allowed introspection, control, and integration.
Brain has many modules that act together.
He studied developmental selection, dynamic core, experiential selection, neural Darwinism, and neuronal-group selection [Edelman, 2003].
Mental events are recursive self-representational loops {strange loop}. The physical basis of loops is the molecular-behavioral loop. Consciousness is higher-order thoughts or reports accompanying unconscious mental states, so brain can monitor itself {higher-order thought, Hofstadter}. This control system allows recursion through self-representations. Mental states have different levels.
Brain has complex patterns, some of which are self-referentional. Lower animals, mammals, primates, children, adults, brain-damaged adults, and senescent people have no, some, half, medium, or high self-reference. Also, self-reference can have one, some, many, or infinite numbers of levels. People can nest things to infinite self-reference. Brain complex patterns are entirely physical at microscopic levels but have descriptions, and causes and effects, that use intentions at higher levels. Self-reference threatens paradox, runaway feedback, inconsistency, and incompleteness.
Strange loops feed back, cross levels, and go back to previous loop stages.
By the theory of types, a set cannot contain itself and a proposition cannot refer to itself.
A true proposition has a proof, which makes it true. A false proposition has no proof, showing it is false. False propositions lead to contradictions.
A different integer can represent each symbol. The sequence of primes can represent each position in a string. The prime raised to the integer represents the symbol at the position. For example, if symbol = is at position 1 and integer 5 represents symbol =, 2^5 = 32 represents the string "=". For more than one position, multiply the primes raised to powers. For example, if integer 2 represents symbol 4, the string "= 4" can be 2^5 * 3^2 = 288. In reverse, knowing the number 288 (Gödel number) and factoring into primes gives the symbol string. Formulas and Gödel numbers have one-to-one mapping and so are analogous. Their meanings are the same, but the concepts differ. Natural numbers can represent any pattern, have unlimited expressivity, and are like universal language.
Formal systems cannot prove that a Gödel number is the number of a true formula.
Symbol strings can represent propositions and inference rules, or not. Proofs derive propositions from previous propositions using rules of inference, and arithmetic calculations on proposition and rule Gödel numbers are equivalent to proofs. Proofs have Gödel numbers.
Some proposition Gödel numbers are in a system, as valid formulas, and the rest are out. Valid formulas come recursively from earlier valid formulas and must get larger. Some proposition Gödel numbers are valid formulas and provable. Provable formulas come recursively from earlier valid formulas and can be smaller or larger.
By describing Gödel numbers using their computation methods, formulas can contain their Gödel numbers. Proposition subjects and verb phrases have smaller Gödel numbers than whole propositions. Propositions can have verb phrases as subjects. Propositions about themselves are not provable.
In formal systems, proofs always find true propositions (consistency). If propositions about themselves were provable, formal systems find that the statement "propositions about themselves are not provable" is false. This is inconsistent.
Formal systems can prove all true propositions (completeness). If propositions about themselves are not provable, formal systems cannot find the true statement "propositions about themselves are not provable". This is incomplete.
I is a symbol that perception sometimes triggers in brains. I becomes larger over development, with more perceptions, results of actions, memories, beliefs, goals, feelings, and imaginings. Brain has structures larger than molecules and neurons and even neuron assemblies and brain regions. Such structures correspond with objects and events in the physical world and so are analogies.
Brains have many symbols and can make symbol patterns. Some brains can make symbol patterns that refer to symbol patterns. Symbol patterns can communicate.
Universal Turing machines can read and write descriptions of themselves (and so any machine).
He studied forgetting and learning transfer.
Consciousness contents are either sensory or propositional. Sensory content is mental image or actual object. Propositional content is statement. Content is what people are aware of, rather than conscious state itself.
Perhaps, minds cannot understand or explain consciousness {mysterianism, McGinn}. People cannot perceive or conceive how brain can make consciousness. Thinking is always spatial but consciousness is non-spatial. People can only understand something if it has simpler parts, parts have relations and combine in specific ways, and combinations let properties emerge {Combinatorial Atomism with Lawlike Mappings} (CALM). Introspection is knowledge by acquaintance and needs no concepts or thinking. Introspection shows that consciousness is not spatial.
Perhaps, before universe origin, everything had no matter, mass, size, or shape. Perhaps, consciousness is about non-spatial-property worlds. Complex brains somehow enable recreating that reality.
Philosophical problems have four answer types: deflationary reductionism, irreducibility, magical, eliminativism (DIME).
He studied imagery.
He studied information structure and intermediate-level theory of consciousness [Jackendoff, 2002].
He lived 1947 to ?. People can be aware that they are dreaming when they have lucid dreaming, in phasic REM sleep. They can perform voluntary acts, such as moving eyeballs and changing breathing rate, but REM inhibits other muscles.
He invented neo-dissociation theory.
When brain evolved to respond quickly to emergency by having high alertness, consciousness began as just concomitant. As people came to have continuing little emergencies, consciousness persisted.
Amnesiacs can respond to cues {priming, Weiskrantz} and so improve ability to recognize [1968: with Elizabeth Warrington]. He asked subjects to press key and give commentary about whether they perceived stimulus {commentary-key paradigm}.
Animals can suffer. Measuring suffering level observes effort that animal exerts to avoid or escape from cause. Animals with more complex behaviors probably can have more suffering. Animals with more complex physiology probably can have more suffering. Animals use signals, such as skin color. They also can recognize species individuals and other species.
He lived 1946 to ? and studied contrastive analysis, deep context, global workspace, self-concept, and self-systems. Global workplace is an extended reticular thalamocortical activating system (ERTAS) [Baars, 2002].
He lived 1951 to ?. He invented the bumps and hollows illusion and studied filling-in. He developed Utilitarian Theory of Perception. Perhaps, people produce art to play or to gain pleasure, to stimulate perceptions and exercise art laws. Perhaps, people produce art to show hand-eye coordination and attract mates. Perhaps, people want art to show wealth and attract mates, so they order art. Perhaps, people rehearse abstracting future activity. Perhaps, art has ten universal laws. Art shows and possibly amplifies individual differences from average {peak shift}. Art discovers abstract triggers of perception used by brain to recognize objects and possibly amplifies them. Perception groups surfaces that share feature to make one object {grouping}, so art uses shared features. Mind has to solve problems to perceive {perceptual problem solving}, so art encourages camouflage and ambiguity. Art uses as few features as possible in the outline {understatement, art} {isolation, art}. Art uses composition with balanced opposites {contrast, art}. Art uses composition with various symmetry forms {symmetry, art}. Art depicts universals, not chance or random coincidences. Art uses composition, including rhythm and repeats {repetition, art}, and arrangements of geometry and intensity {balance, art}. Art combines unrelated objects to emphasize feature {metaphor, art}.
Consciousness is higher-order thoughts about representations {higher-order thought theory, Rosenthal} {meta-representation, Rosenthal}.
He developed a materialist psychology, with no mind {eliminative materialism, Stich}.
He studied mind and dreaming.
She lived 1957 to ? and studies blindsight.
He studied amnesia.
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He studied microconsciousness [Zeki, 1998] and essential nodes [Zeki, 2001]. In area V5, cells detect spot or line motion direction. In V4, cells detect color difference. Cells can respond to relative intensities at different wavelengths or to actual perceived color, which depends on surroundings. Adjacent to primary visual cortex, cells can detect line orientation, receptive fields are larger, and mapping varies.
He lived 1948 to ? and studied enactive perception. Perception depends on sense and motor actions. It is not about representation but about capacity to do something.
He studied extended consciousness, autobiographical self, core-self, proto-self, somatic marker, akinetic mutism, and epileptic automatism.
Consciousness involves special brain regions, which attend to brain regions that regulate body. Wakefulness, attention, and consciousness are separate. Consciousness involves perceptions and emotion mental parts, because emotions precede consciousness. Consciousness is response but is not overt.
Emotion is an innate pattern of chemical and neural responses to stimulus patterns. Emotions involve brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain, which regulate body. Reticular formation, cranial nerve nuclei, amygdala, anterior cingulate, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex send axons to periaqueductal gray (PAG), which coordinates emotions. Damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex reduces social behaviors and emotions {prefrontal lobe syndrome}. Different emotions involve different brain regions. Emotions are automatic but learning and consciousness can affect them. Emotions lead to feelings, which involve cortex.
Images become explicit, consciously or unconsciously, in mental space {image space}. Memory, recall, movement, attention, and image processing are in implicit unconscious mental space {dispositional space}.
Symbols are mental image: spatial and temporal, concrete or abstract, conscious or unconscious, or mental patterns representing objects and concepts. Images depend on neural patterns of chemical and electrical activity. Mental uses symbols directly.
Cerebral association cortex recognizes stimulus, which sends signals to amygdala to trigger emotional reaction, which sends to basal forebrain, hypothalamus, and brainstem to perform reaction. Brain senses body changes and conveys information to trigeminal nucleus, parabrachial nucleus, nucleus tractus solitarius, ventral medial thalamus, insula, anterior cingulate, and ventromedial frontal lobes to make emotional state. Mental states arising from brain sensory events are feelings, which are ideas about body state, having both thoughts and processing methods [Damasio, 1999].
She invented dying brain hypothesis. People copy and recombine memes {memetics}. Imitation development associates with big brains and language. Imitation also allowed sense of self and other [Blackmore, 2006].
Mind is non-local.
She lived 1950 to ?. Consciousness level depends on brain size and complexity.
He lived 1958 to ?. Experience is unity {Holon}. Experience involves model of self {self-model theory}.
Consciousness starts from social interaction but then needs to expand to link brain modules. Mammals gained general ability to make primates, then specialized language and culture to make early hominins, and then general ability to make modern humans.
He lived 1947 to ?. Anesthetics can interact with brain-cell microtubules.
He lived 1966 to ?. Information is physical and phenomenal, and physical properties cause phenomenal properties, so same physical situation can cause different phenomena {double-aspect theory, information} {naturalistic dualism}, which is non-reductive.
Judgments about experience have functional or physical explanations, but experience is not part of the explanation, even when the judgment is that experience is not physical or functional {paradox of phenomenal judgment}.
If artificial parts replace neurons with same functions, do qualia fade {fading qualia}?
If artificial parts switch back and forth with neurons with same functions, do qualia flip {dancing qualia}?
How do brain processes cause sensations {hard problem, consciousness}? How do brain processes cause mental functions like perceiving, attending, waking, sleeping, moving voluntarily, and categorizing {easy problem, consciousness}?
Consciousness supervenes on the physical but is a different reality type. Phenomena, conscious states, emerge from physical structures and functions according to laws. Before 1800, people thought electromagnetism was reducible to mechanics, but instead it became a new irreducible force. Phenomena are irreducible properties, not substances, of nature, requiring non-reductive theory. Experience properties, relations, and structures reflect nervous-system anatomy and physiology, as well as physical stimuli. Brain process can generate consciousness [Chalmers, 2000] [Chalmers, 2002].
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He invented, with Mark Pimm-Smith, a message-aware control mechanism, with inner loop for specific messages from sense modules, connected to controller with goals and attention.
Thoughts {non-iconic thought} can have no images.
He invented global neuronal workspace theory, in which neurons have permanent and temporary modules connected over long and short distances, for perception, memory, attention, emotion, evaluation, and action.
Only humans are self-consciousness and feelings, because only they have language.
Perception uses temporal steps {microgenesis, Bachmann} [Bachmann, 2000].
He lived 1942 to ? and is Critical Realist. Brain and mind are one, because physical world and experience have same place and time with similar intensities {reflexive monism}. He invented reflexive model of consciousness.
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He studied mind as neural dynamical system, in which waves have synchronous phase by phase locking and then transition to new phase. Brains are self-organizing systems in critical states that transition to global patterns.
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