Education can teach writing {writing}.
properties
Written-work properties are subject, intention, audience, form, and style.
properties: character
Written works have characters, including hero, protagonist, antagonist, sidekick, narrator, and supporting characters.
properties: conflict
Written works have conflict, such as person vs. God, person vs. nature, person vs. others, or person vs. self.
properties: emphasis
Emphasis uses repetition or placement at sentence end or first word. Passive voice shows agent is not important. Repetition repeats important words, restates same idea in several ways, uses same subject in several sentences, or repeats sentence patterns.
properties: parts
Written works have title, author, publisher, location, date, and page number.
properties: purpose
Writing has purpose and intention, such as problem solving, persuading, communicating knowledge, creating emotion, describing, illustrating, reminiscing, reporting, directing to do something, explaining, criticizing, reflecting, giving opinion, or amusing.
properties: register
Writing involves different relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader {register, writing}, such as friendly, formal, familiar, polite, threatening, subservient, or authoritative.
properties: relations
Events and objects can associate by parts and/or functions; patterns; causes and effects; or purposes, moral issues, and rules. Binary relations for contact are attached/unattached, linked/not linked, touching/separate, and adjacent/non-adjacent. Binary relations for space are cover/covered, on/underneath, in/out, inside/outside, over/under, beside/beside, right/left, front/back, top/bottom, above/below, side/side, around or surrounding/in, and surround/surrounded. Binary relations for time are simultaneous/different, before/after, slightly before/slightly after, and long/short. Relations include compass points, celestial-sphere points, coordinates, and time amount.
properties: symbolism
Written works have symbolism, such as sexual symbols or power symbols.
properties: tone
Writing has attitude {tone, writing}, such as irony, satire, affection, reverence, amusement, coldness, enthusiasm, cynicism, reserve, passion, or detachment. Attitude can be toward subject or other characters.
properties: voice
Writing has unique author and viewpoint {voice, viewpoint}, such as active person, sensitive intelligent person, or bossy stressed person, which readers infer from diction, tone, and register.
form
Writing has form and organization. Rough plans have thesis, hows, whys, examples, and details, in logical order, in topic outline or sentence outline.
Main-sentence thesis statement is about main idea. There are other ideas. Ideas have details.
form: organization
Order is by chronological, spatial, order-of-importance, comparison-and-contrast, cause-and-effect, or part-by-part ordering.
Induction goes from specific to general. Deduction uses syllogism or other logic.
Order can go from least important to most important. Chronology can go forward or backward. Spatial relations can be above/below, front/back, right/left, diagonal, and so on.
Function, behavior, thing, or idea comparison can be in two blocks or can alternate. Function, behavior, thing, or idea contrast can be in two blocks or can alternate.
Process or procedure uses steps over time, cause and effect, or importance order.
Classification into smaller or larger classes can be by parts, functions, activities, or theory.
Cause and effect can use immediate causes, remote causes, sufficient causes, necessary causes, contributory causes, causes present or not, cause usually the same or not, frequent causes, or effect types.
Definition can be by class belonged to, similar classes, or classes contained in, plus distinguishing characteristics.
Example or illustration gives detail.
Narration tells story.
Extended analogy shows similarities.
Description or observation can distinguish characteristics, features, behaviors, and contexts.
Problem solving uses steps.
form: types
Prose writing types include exposition, description, argument, narration, summary, and fiction.
Forms are abstract, acceptance speech, accident report, address jury, adventure writing, advertisement, advice, afterword, agenda, allegory, analysis essay, annals, annotation, annual report, apology, appeal, application, and autobiography. Forms are ballad, bibliography, billboard, biography, birth announcement, blank verse, book review, briefing, brochure, bulletin board, business letter, business proposal, and bylaws. Forms are campaign speech, caption, cartoon, cause-and-effect essay, chant, character sketch, charter, cheer, children's story, cinquain, classification essay, classified advertisement, comeback speech, comedy, comic strip, community calendar, comparison-contrast essay, complaint, concrete poem, constitution, constructive speech, consumer report, contract, court decision, credo, critical analysis, critical essay, and curriculum. Forms are daydream, debate, definition, definition essay, detective story, dialogue, diary, diatribe, dictionary entry, directions, docudrama, dramatic narrative, dream analysis, and dream report. Forms are editorial, elegy, encyclopedia article, epic, epic poem, epigram, epilogue, epistolary fiction, epitaph, essay, eulogy, experiment, explication, and exposé. Forms are fable, fabliau, family history, fantasy, filmstrip, flyer, foreword, formal essay, fortune cookie, found poem, and free verse. Forms are Gothic tale, graduation speech, grant application, and greeting card. Forms are haiku, headline, history, horoscope, how-to essay, and human-interest story. Forms are essays, instructions, insults, interview questions, introductions, invitations, and itineraries. Forms are jingle, joke, and journal entry. Forms are keynote address. Forms are lament, law, learning log, letter to editor, libretto, limerick, love letter, and lyric poem. Forms are magazine article, manifesto, manual, memoir, memorandum, memorial plaque, menu, minutes, monologue, monument inscription, movie review, mystery, and myth. Forms are narrative poem, nature guide, news story, nomination speech, nonsense rhyme, novel, novella, and nursery rhyme. Forms are obituary, ode, one-act play, oracle, and ottava rima. Forms are packaging copy, parable, paragraph, paraphrase, parody, party platform, pastoral, personal essay, personal letter, persuasive essay, petition, play, police report, political advertisement, prediction, preface, press release, process essay, proclamation, profile, prologue, proposal, prose poem, protocol, and public service announcement. Forms are quatrain. Forms are radio play, radio spot, rap, reader's theater, rebuttal, recipe, recommendation, referendum question, research report, resignation, restaurant review, resume, riddle, roast, and romance. Forms are sales letter, schedule, science fiction, science writing, screenplay, sermon, short story, sign, situation comedy, slide show, slogan, song lyric, sonnet, specification, speech, spell, sports story, statute, storyboard, stream-of-consciousness, summary, summation, survey, and sutra. Forms are tall tale, tanka, technical writing, terza rima, test, thank-you note, theater review, toast, tour guide story, tragedy, translation, treaty, and TV advertisement. Forms are villanelle and vows. Forms are want ad, wanted poster, warrant, and wish list.
grading
Numerical grading system can be digital, based on accumulated positive and negative points. Minus is for misspelling, bad grammar, bad punctuation, redundancy, ambiguity, no transition, incorrect transition, extraneous phrase or sentence, faulty logic, over-generalization, copying, unattributed quote, plagiarism, no opening paragraph theme or purpose, and unorganized paragraph. Teacher can use check mark for good idea, example, analogy, definition, explanation, logical deduction, comparison, contrast, or process. Extra checks are for exceptional ideas or phrasing. Attempted things that did not work out receive no mark. Score can be sum of minus and check marks, or number of independent clauses divided into sum of minus and check marks.
Writing has intended readers {audience, writing}|. Audiences differ at occasions for praising, blaming, honoring, dishonoring, or exhorting {ceremonial audience}; accusing, defending, or arguing {legal audience}; advising, persuading, or explaining {deliberative audience}; or entertaining or amusing {amused audience}. Do not underestimate reader. Think about reader responses.
Writing has a main part {body, writing}.
development
Develop thesis. Use examples, details, comparisons, cases, histories, causes, effects, facts, figures, testimony, quotations, figures of speech, analogies, impressions, opinions, arguments, theories, concepts, experiences, traditions, proverbs, definitions, parts, functions, etymology, deduction, induction, statistics, narration, evolution, history, before, after, good, bad, goal, and purpose.
order
Order paragraphs by time, space, and question to answer, from effect to cause, from particular to general, as in induction, or from general to particular, as in deduction.
style
Make each detail stand for detail category, so reader imagination can extrapolate. Use perceptions relevant to subject. Underline, bold, or italicize important words. Avoid opinions and emotions unless they are facts.
Writing has word choice {diction, writing}|, which determines tone.
Written work has diction or difficulty level {difficulty level} {level of difficulty, writing}.
Written works have types {genre, writing}|, such as novel, short story, novella, or novelette.
Plot or character can change {irony of structure} or reader idea, prediction, or appearance can change {irony of attitude} {irony, writing}.
Metaphors, similes, allusions, and personifications {metaphor, writing} can embellish writing. Do not mix metaphors, allusions, similes, or personifications. Do not use similar words with different meanings. Do not use antonyms backwards. Do not use references that not understood. Remember all word denotations and connotations.
Written works have mode {mode, writing}, such as romantic, tragic, comic, ironic, or melodramatic.
Writing has an outline {outline, writing}.
Introduction states problem, background information, and thesis or topic.
Thesis clarification has definitions, ideas, included things, and excluded things.
Thesis proof uses comparisons and contrasts, deductions, analogies, inductions, facts, examples, and causes and effects.
Thesis reexamination answers problems about thesis correctness one by one, rejects possible alternative theses as not good, and restates thesis. Analysis suggests new ideas and imagines new problems. New information, not yet available, can be necessary to understand problem more thoroughly.
Conclusion contains moral, tag, or another reference to thesis.
Paragraphs {paragraph, writing} are four or five sentences long, with topic sentence first. Paragraphs are about one idea, with details. Focus and stress are at same place in paragraph. Paragraph styles are descriptive, narrative, persuasive, and expository, which includes definition, comparison, analogy, and cause and effect. Do not mix paragraph styles in one paragraph. Vary paragraph styles.
Written works have plot {plot, writing}, with introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Written works have viewpoint {point of view, writing} {viewpoint, writing}, including first person or third person {voice, writing}. Always use same voice and viewpoint in all sentences.
After writing, revise text {revision, writing}.
Articles {scientific article} can have the following parts, in sequence.
abstract
Abstract or summary gives main results.
introduction
Introduction includes investigation history, literature citations, background information, experiment or article purpose, and experiment hypothesis or article theme.
methods
Materials and methods section includes procedures, equipment, and supplies.
results
Results section includes actual control and test group data, data summaries, figures, and tables.
discussion
Discussion includes reasons for errors, ideas for new experiments, and speculations.
conclusion
Conclusion includes hypothesis restatement, modified by experiment results.
references
Reference section gives references, in standard format and order.
Use basic sentence structure {sentence structure}: subject-verb-complement-adverb.
Avoid clichés, commonplace words, and slang {sentence, writing}. Change simple sentences to complex ones by coordination, subordination, or nominalization. Do not nominalize too much. Do not use unnecessary introductions. Do not use redundancy. Replace unneeded verb or noun phrases with one word. Substitute words for phrases or clauses.
Put the most-important sentence part at end {stress, sentence} {sentence stress}, where stress is. Emphasize most-important part. Use short subject phrase, because it has no stress.
Written works have style {style, writing}, such as formal or informal. Writing has style, such as intimate, casual, informal, or formal. Simplify complex constructions. Never use ponderous style. Do not refer to self but do use personal experiences. Continually emphasize theme. Be sensitive to nuances and feelings. Be alert for additional good thoughts. Act like writing is search for truth. Do not assert truth as such. Illustrate thinking process. Be aware of real time and emotional time. Use foreshadowing to add suspense.
Writing is about topics {subject, writing} {topic, writing}. Use subject in which interested. Use only material related to subject. Choose subject part that students can answer in allotted time and in reasonable number of pages and that uses available resources.
Written works have themes {theme, writing}, about nobility, patience, virtue, wisdom, and other valued ideas.
Organize ideas using sentence {thesis statement}| about main idea. State thesis in 15 to 25 words, including main reason it is true or believable, or state purpose or goal. Use no ambiguity. Restrict thesis to one thing. Do not make thesis too general. Do not mix fact and opinion. Thesis is typically first-paragraph last sentence. State thesis meaning. Use image to illustrate thesis.
Connect paragraphs and parts {transition, writing}. Use good sentence-connecting words near sentence beginning.
Students know standard vocabulary {vocabulary, writing}. Students know vocabularies used in academic subjects. Students know precise word meanings and use words correctly.
Use good grammar {grammar, writing}. Use parallel sentences or words that are same speech parts. Use introductory words, which, that, and concluding words correctly. Use few "of" and "which".
noun usage
Use concrete nouns. Do not use many abstract nouns. Use articles, adjectives, head nouns, and simple nouns in noun phrases. Use all cases for noun phrases: subjective, objective, possessive, etc. Use sensory and specific, not common or general, words.
verb
Use intransitive, copula, semi-transitive, and transitive verbs in verb phrases. Use more verbs and fewer nouns.
voice
Do not use passive voice much, because it focuses badly.
Use parallel sentences {balanced sentence}, parallel parts followed by main clause {climatic sentence} {periodic sentence}, or similar sentences with coordination or modification {parallelism, writing}|.
For ideas {writing ideas}, use cluster chart, freewriting, pro-and-con chart, story map, and time line. Ask questions. Analyze into parts and functions. Use imagination to change things. Assume role. Brainstorm with others. Discuss with others. Make sets and overlap them, in Venn diagrams.
Cluster additional objects and events {cluster chart}.
Use random thoughts {freewriting}.
List positives and negatives {pro-and-con chart}.
List setting, characters, plot, conflict, mood, and theme {story map}.
Make linear history {time line}.
Writing has a process {writing process}. Works have topics. Works have readers, such as writer, friends or relatives, teacher, professional group, or community. Works have goals, such as expressing feelings or opinions, providing information, persuading, or entertaining. Works have form, such as article, short story, novel, essay, or poem. Works have purposes and ideas {content}. Works have consistent ordering and transitions {organization}. Works have mood and distinctive language.
First writing stage {prewriting} {writing plan} is choosing topic, audience, purpose, and form; researching ideas; and organizing ideas.
Second writing stage {drafting} is writing first complete work.
Third writing stage {evaluating, writing} is judging and indicating where to modify, by writer or editor.
Fourth writing stage {revising} is revising content, organization, style, and expression, by adding, cutting, replacing, and moving.
Fifth writing stage {proofreading}| is correcting spelling, grammar, usage, capitalization, and punctuation errors, to make final copy.
Sixth writing stage {publishing}| is presenting work to audience.
Symbols {punctuation} separate words.
capitalization
Capitalize titles, works, people names, object names, places, organizations, brands, and events. Capitalize first sentence words.
italics
Italics or underlining is for emphasis, long-work titles, and foreign-language phrases.
symbols
Semicolons can mark ends of phrases or clauses that include commas and ends of independent clauses without conjunctions. Parentheses can mark extra or less important information. Apostrophes can mark possession or contraction.
quotation marks
Quotation marks are for titles or short works, such as songs, essays, short poems, and parts, and sections. Quotation marks are for direct quotations. Single quotation marks enclose direct quotations inside direct quotations.
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points {end mark} can mark sentence ends and show sentence types.
Symbols {comma} can mark pauses, interruptions, introductories, series items {serial comma}, conjunction first-clause endings, non-restrictive phrase and clause beginnings and ends, and appositives.
Symbols {colon for list} can introduce lists or long statements.
Symbols {dash} can mark breaks in thought, substituting for "namely", "that is", "in other words", and "i.e.". Hyphens can link words in compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Symbol pairs {brackets} can mark corrections or comments.
Symbols {ellipsis} can mark pauses or omissions.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225