She lived 1706 to 1749 and translated Newton's Principia into French.
He lived 1873 to 1916 and used general relativity to model static universes {Schwarzschild space-time} and stars [1916]. He found Schwarzschild limit. Schwarzschild [1903], Tetrode, and Fokker developed perfect absorption to renormalize Maxwell's equations.
She lived 1854 to 1923 and determined that removing air from streetlamps and shaping arc ends prevented hissing in electric arcs, with William Edward Ayrton.
He lived 1882 to 1962. Scientific concepts relate to experiment methods {operationalism, Bridgman}.
He lived 1914 to ?.
He lived 1908 to 1974.
He lived 1936 to ?.
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He lived 1773 to 1858 and discovered cell nucleus [1827] and Brownian movement [1828].
He lived 1804 to 1865 and invented Lenz's law [1834].
He lived 1820 to 1872, developed Rankine temperature scale, and invented first energy-conservation law.
He lived 1837 to 1923, discovered Van der Waals forces [1880], and studied equilibrium matter states [1890].
He lived 1852 to 1908 and studied radioactivity [1896].
She lived 1876 to 1933 and studied radioactivity and element transmutation [1899 to 1907]. She discovered radon and nuclei recoil after radioactivity.
He lived 1858 to 1947 and found Plank's constant [1900]. He studied blackbody radiation, radiation absorption and emission quantum theory, and electromagnetic radiation energy. Light has energy proportional to frequency. Blackbody radiation intensity is proportional to temperature, because many oscillators with different, discrete frequencies cause radiation [1900]. Sum of frequency intensities is not infinite.
He lived 1863 to 1906 and studied metal free electrons [1902].
He lived 1868 to 1953 and measured electron charge [1911].
He lived 1853 to 1926 and discovered superconductivity [1911].
He lived 1871 to 1937 and discovered atom central nucleus [1911], orbited by electrons.
He lived 1884 to 1966 and invented Debye-Hückel theory [1936] and studied vibration energy. Vibration energy equals mechanical-vibration frequency times Planck constant [1912].
He lived 1868 to 1951 and studied Bohr atom and elliptical electron orbits [1913].
He lived 1885 to 1962, studied electromagnetic radiation energies, and explained atomic spectra. Absorbed or emitted light has electron orbital-transition energies [1913]. Electron angular momentum is shell number times Planck constant divided by 2 * pi. Electron rotation frequencies have discrete values. He philosophized about waves and particle complementarity and invented Copenhagen quantum-mechanics interpretation [1928].
He lived 1875 to 1965 and studied Bohr atom [1913] and semiconductor average drift velocity per unit force [1932].
He lived 1887 to 1975 and studied photoelectric effect {Franck-Hertz effect}, with James Franck [1914].
He stated that relativity causes orbiting-particle orbit-plane precession around a rotating mass, because rotation and angular momentum couple [1918], with Hans Thirring. He studied Lense-Thirring effect, frame dragging, and gravitomagnetism.
He lived 1888 to 1976. He stated that relativity causes orbiting-particle orbit-plane precession around a rotating mass, because rotation and angular momentum couple [1918], with Joseph Lense. He studied Lense-Thirring effect, frame dragging, and gravitomagnetism.
He lived 1895 to 1931. Schwarzschild, Tetrode [1922], and Fokker developed perfect absorption to renormalize Maxwell's equations.
He lived 1892 to 1962 and found Compton radiation [1923].
He lived 1894 to 1974 and developed Bose-Einstein statistics for bosons [1924].
He lived 1892 to 1987. Matter has wave properties, all particles have associated waves, and electron orbits are resonating waves {theory of the double solution} [1924]. Momentum times wavelength equals Planck constant, so mass in motion has wavelength.
He lived 1902 to 1978 and measured electron spin [1925], with Uhlenbeck.
He lived 1902 to 1980 and contributed to matrix mechanics as quantum-mechanics explanation [1925], with Max Born.
He lived 1900 to 1988 and measured electron spin [1925], with Goudsmit. Spectra require particle rotation {spin, Uhlenbeck}, which is angular-momentum component. Spin is required and intrinsic to some particles.
He lived 1900 to 1958, invented Pauli exclusion principle [1925], and predicted neutrinos [1930].
He lived 1901 to 1976, invented theory of infinite matrices and matrix mechanics {S matrix theory} as quantum-mechanics explanation [1926], and developed uncertainty principle [1927].
He lived 1904 to 1990 and discovered Cerenkov effect [1926] and Cerenkov radiation [1934].
He lived 1901 to 1954, developed Fermi-Dirac statistics for fermions [1926], studied radioactive decay, and invented controlled chain reaction [1942].
He lived 1887 to 1961 and invented Schrödinger wave equation [1926]. Schrödinger-equation WKBJ solution was later.
He lived 1902 to 1984, developed Fermi-Dirac statistics for fermions [1926], invented Dirac equation for electron [1928], and developed relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic wave equation [1931]. He showed how to subtract particle field, which becomes infinite at point, and leave surrounding field, if particle position, velocity, and acceleration have values. Many initial accelerations cause particles to accelerate continuously {runaway solutions}.
He lived 1902 to 1995 and developed non-commuting observable-function theory [1926]. Consciousness causes wavefunction collapse [1961].
He lived 1881 to 1958 and studied electron diffraction [1927], with Germer.
He lived 1896 to 1971 and studied electron diffraction [1927], with Davisson.
He lived 1904 to 1981 and helped invent Heitler-London hydrogen-molecule electronic-structure theory [1927].
He lived 1900 to 1954 and helped invent Heitler-London hydrogen-molecule electronic-structure theory [1927].
von Neumann lived 1903 to 1957. Wigner lived 1902 to 1995. They developed algebraic quantum-mechanics theory [1928 to 1929].
He lived 1887 to 1972. Schwarzschild, Tetrode, and Fokker [1929] developed perfect absorption to renormalize Maxwell's equations.
He lived 1905 to 1991 and found anti-electron or positron [1932].
He lived 1896 to 1980 and invented Debye-Hückel theory [1932].
He lived 1906 to 1938 and showed how Riemann sphere can designate n - 1 independent unordered spatial spin directions for a particle with spin 0.5 * n, with no opposite directions [1932]. Quantum mechanically, particle spins about many spatial axes simultaneously. However, large particle collections spin around one axis. It is not clear how collective spin is sum of particle spins and thus depends on wavefunction superpositions. Only wavefunction reduction eliminates other possibilities.
He lived 1904 to 1967 and developed the Born-Oppenheimer relation between molecular rotation, vibration, and electronic structure [1932]. He and Hartland Snyder used general relativity to describe black holes [1939]. He and G. M. Volkov found mass limit {Landau-Oppenheimer-Volkov limit, Oppenheimer} for making black holes instead of neutron stars, 2.5 times Sun mass [1939]. He led Manhattan Project [1945].
He lived 1903 to 1976 and studied irreversible thermodynamics [1933]. He symmetrically related non-equilibrium-system forward and backward molecular processes {reciprocity relation}, such as osmosis and reverse osmosis or heating and thermocoupling.
He lived 1902 to 1967 and studied magnetism, developing resistive magnets [1933 to 1936] of stacked copper plates {Bitter plate}.
He lived 1891 to 1974 and studied electrons [1935].
He lived 1907 to 1981 and discovered pion [1935].
He lived 1894 to 1984 and discovered helium-4 superfluidity [1938].
She lived 1878 to 1968 and described nuclear fission [1939] with Otto Frisch.
He lived 1906 to 2005 and described carbon-nitrogen and proton-proton nuclear-fusion cycles [1939].
He lived 1888 to 1976 and developed unitary particle interpretation [1941 to 1956].
He lived 1915 to 2005 and built atomic bomb [1945].
He lived 1908 to 2002 and built atomic bomb [1945].
He lived 1915 to 1994 and worked on atomic bomb [1945].
They discovered electron Lamb shift [1947].
He lived 1919 to ? and invented universe steady-state theory [1948], with Hoyle and Gold.
He lived 1909 to 2000 and found Casimir effect [1948].
He lived 1918 to 1988 and developed quantum electrodynamics [1948], renormalization group theory [1948], and path integral theory [1948].
He lived 1895 to 1982 and studied cryogenics [1949].
He lived 1918 to 1998 and developed C* algebra theory for quantum mechanics [1951].
He lived 1917 to 1992 and developed the hidden particle theory and pilot wave interpretation [1952], from study of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen experiment.
Yang lived 1922 to ?. Mills lived 1927 to 1999. They studied Yang-Mills field [Yang and Mills, 1954].
He lived 1902 to 1974 and discovered neutrinos [1956], with Reines.
He lived 1918 to 1998 and discovered neutrinos [1956], with Cowan.
Bardeen lived 1908 to 1991. Cooper lived 1930 to ?. Schrieffer lived 1931 to ?. They invented BCS superconductivity theory, in which electrons distort positive-ion lattices to make phonons, which interact with second electrons, causing slight attraction and so pairing electrons [1957]. In superconductors, magnetic flux has quanta. Electric field has no quanta, but quantizing the field mathematically allows easier calculations. Critical temperature is higher if more electrons can be in superconductive state, if lattice-vibration frequencies are higher, and if electrons and lattice interact more strongly.
He lived 1930 to 1982 and modified generalized Lagrange multiplier method {Everett algorithm}, which finds optimum paths. Quantum systems, including measuring devices and observers, have probabilities of possible states. Reality includes all possible states, including separate realities for observer and observation states {relative state interpretation} {many-worlds interpretation} [1957].
He lived 1922 to 1998 and studied information theory, thermodynamics, and neoclassical radiation theory [1957].
He studied S-matrix theory [1961] and bootstrap hypothesis [1966].
He invented path integral quantum-mechanics theory [1962].
He lived 1907 to 1996 and invented Regge calculus [1962], addition to S-matrix theory.
He lived 1937 to ? and suggested quarks [1964], with Murray Gell-Mann.
He invented the idea of Higgs field and Higgs boson [1964 to 1966].
He lived 1928 to 1990. Instruments can measure coupled-particle spins to see if spins are separable. Positive-spin number along first-particle x-axis and second-particle y-axis is less than or equal to positive-spin number along first-particle x-axis and second-particle z-axis plus positive-spin number along first-particle y-axis and second-particle z-axis {Bell inequality} {Bell's inequalities}. In quantum mechanics, Bell inequality is not true. Two particles are not separable. No local hidden variables exist [1964] {Bell's theorem, Bell}.
He lived 1929 to ?, suggested quarks [1964], with George Zweig, and invented decoherence theory [1994].
He lived 1926 to 1999. Quasar density increases with redshift [1965], with Martin Rees.
Quantum waves collapse only when they interact with consciousness and observation. Brain can plan better from fewer possibilities. Consciousness is brain parts and activities that collapse wave functions. Brains do not affect probabilities but only initiate collapses.
He lived 1908 to 1995 and studied plasma physics.
Gravity causes wavefunction reduction.
He found that Euler beta-function describes properties of particles affected by strong force [1968].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969]. He studied holographic principle and how it applies to string theory [1995].
They invented atomic-nucleus interacting boson model.
He lived 1914 to 1987. Gravity can cause baryons to decay, over 10^31 years [1976]. He described the Cosmological Constant problem [1967]: cosmological constant is 120 order of magnitude too great.
He invented aluminum-manganese alloy with fivefold symmetry and symmetry three dimensions {quasicrystal} [1984]. Later, others invented aluminum-lithium-copper alloy.
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They invented a thought experiment {GHZ experiment} [1989]. If three spin 1/2 particles have singlet state, two detectors oriented at different angles, perpendicular to moving particle path, can measure one particle's spin.
He lived 1931 to ? and developed quantum-mechanics objective reduction [Penrose, 1994].
Phase spaces can show results of non-commutative operations {non-commutative geometry, Connes} and so represent non-commutative algebras. For example, space rotations are non-commutative. Phase spaces representing quantum effects are non-commutative. Geometry can be non-commutative if axes are different, rather than equivalent. Cross products are non-commutative. His non-commutative phase space can represent all elementary particle symmetry groups. This space has two continuous spaces, which have bosons, linked by discrete non-commutative space, which has Higgs particles, predicted to have mass of 160 GeV. Using this space defines what renormalization is mathematically, rather than it looking ad hoc, with Dirk Kreimer. Perhaps, space has fractional dimensions related to gravitation. Gravity has non-commutation of quanta and operations, and this can give rise to time, just as atomic motions give rise to temperature, with Carlo Rovelli.
He invented decoherence theory, with Gell-Mann [1994]. With Robert Geroch, he studied quantum gravity as superpositions of all possible four-dimensional space-time curvatures weighted by complex numbers [1986], but it is impossible to prove that two different four-dimensional space-time topologies are the same, so they can be unique or degenerate.
ADD suggested that perceived space-time is inside universe with two more large dimensions [1998].
He suggested that universe is inside a universe with one more dimension, where most gravity stays, making perceived gravity weak [1999: with Randall]. Space-time is anti-de-Sitter space.
She suggested that universe is inside a universe with one more dimension, where most gravity stays, making perceived gravity weak [1999: with Sundrum]. Space-time is anti-de-Sitter space.
He lived 1544 to 1603 and studied static electricity and magnetism.
He lived 1580 to 1626, first discussed loxodrome paths on sphere that make constant angles with meridians, and invented Snell's law [1621].
He lived [1608 to 1647] and invented Torricelli's theorem [1641]. Nature does not abhor vacuum.
He lived 1635 to 1703, invented Hooke's law [1660], and observed cork cells under microscope [1663]. He invented universal joint, iris diaphragm, anchor escapement {anchor escapement}, and balance spring [1660].
He lived 1686 to 1736 and invented Fahrenheit thermometer [1714].
He lived 1666 to 1736 and studied electrical conductors and insulators [1729 to 1732].
He lived 1698 to 1739 and studied positive and negative electric charge transfers, calling them vitreous and resinous [1737].
He lived 1701 to 1744 and invented centigrade or Celsius thermometer [1742].
He lived 1731 to 1810 and studied specific heat, discovered hydrogen gas [1785], measured gravity of 10000-gram mass [1798], and found Earth mass and density [1798].
He lived 1746 to 1823 and invented Charles' law [1787].
He lived 1753 to 1814 and studied heat from work and friction [1798].
He lived 1773 to 1829, invented Young's modulus, developed light-wave theory, and analyzed light-interference patterns [1801]. Prism colors add to make brightness. Different colored-light ratios make all intermediate colors [1801]. Eye lens accommodates to different distances by changing anterior surface curvature. Color vision mixes signals from three retinal channels.
He lived 1778 to 1829, discovered nitrous oxide exhilarating and anesthetic effects [1806], and split compounds using electricity.
He lived 1787 to 1826 and described Fraunhofer lines [1812].
He lived 1777 to 1851 and found that moving charge has magnetic field [1819].
He lived 1775 to 1836 and studied magnetic fields around conductors [1820 to 1827].
He lived 1785 to 1836 and studied fluid dynamics [1821 to 1822].
He lived 1788 to 1827, developed Fresnel integral, and applied it to making lenses for refraction [1822].
He lived 1796 to 1832 and invented heat-engine theory.
He lived 1789 to 1854 and invented Ohm's law [1827].
He lived 1797 to 1878 and induced current magnetically and studied self-inductance [1832].
He lived 1803 to 1853 and discovered Doppler effect [1842].
He lived 1819 to 1868, invented Foucault pendulum [1848], and studied refraction index [1850].
He lived 1818 to 1889 and studied heat in conductors. Work and heat are energies [1851].
He lived 1842 to 1919, studied traveling waves, studied hydrodynamics {hydrodynamic similarity}, studied frictionless-tube compressible flow with heat transfer {Rayleigh flow} [1885], discovered argon [1894], and described light scattering [1871]. He calculated black-body radiation distribution at low and high frequencies {Rayleigh-Jeans radiation}, with James Jeans [1900], which indicated that all energy goes into higher field frequencies over time {ultraviolet catastrophe}, which is impossible.
He lived 1824 to 1907, invented Kelvin temperature scale [1876], and studied thermodynamics.
He lived 1842 to 1912 and studied hydraulics and hydrodynamics, especially turbulent flow and when fluid transitions from laminar to turbulent flow {hydrodynamic stability} [1883 to 1889].
He lived 1856 to 1940 and studied gas electrons and electrical conduction [1885].
He lived 1857 to 1894 and invented radio waves [1888].
He lived 1864 to 1941, invented thermodynamic energy equation or Nernst equation [18], and studied matter at absolute zero and thermodynamics, including photo chain reactions [1918].
He lived 1845 to 1923 and discovered x-rays [1895].
He lived 1864 to 1928 and studied black body radiation [1898].
She lived 1867 to 1934 and discovered radium [1903].
He lived 1875 to 1953. Flow has two regions. One is potential flow, with incompressible and non-rotating fluid. The other is thin boundary layer next to tube or obstruction, where there are viscous effects and where surface interacts thermally and mechanically with fluid [1904]. Wing induces drag as it lifts {lifting line theory, Prandtl} [1920].
He lived 1894 to 1968 and worked on control and feedback [1930 to 1939]. First, people provided goals, energy, and control for primitive tools like ax. Next, machines provided energy, and people provided goals and monitored machines. Now, people provide goals, and machines provide energy and control. In the future, machines will determine their goals.
He lived 1642 to 1727 and developed gravity and force laws [1687]. He stated three motion laws and universal-gravitation law.
He invented a light-particle theory and used prisms to separate sunlight into different-color rays. Colors bend by different amounts, but rays cannot further separate or bend [1666].
He invented dy/dx differentiation, infinitesimal calculus, prime-ratio method, ultimate-ratio method, infinite series, fundamental theorem of calculus, differentiation, limits, and limit theorem. He studied polar and bipolar coordinates and invariance under transformation. He invented Newton's parallelogram, Newton's root-finding method, and physical "action".
For one dimension, shear stress F equals shear viscosity µ times derivative of horizontal velocity v with orthogonal coordinate y {linear constitutive relation}: F = µ * dv / dy. This law relates stress to strain rate and usually has three dimensions. This relation leads to the later Navier-Stokes equations.
Epistemology
Spinning discs with varying-area colored segments can make new colors. Average star mass provides absolute reference for accelerated motion, including rotational motion. Water in spinning buckets is concave, because it rotates with respect to universe and not with respect to bucket {bucket argument, Newton}.
"Hypotheses non fingo" or "I feign no hypotheses (about the causes of gravity)" is a phrase in the General Scholium essay of the Principia, 2nd edition [1713].
He lived 1831 to 1879, developed feedback-regulation mathematical formulas, and invented electromagnetism and electromagnetic-wave laws [1865], using first-order partial-differential-equation systems. Mixing red, green, and blue primary colors can make all colors [1854].
He lived 1838 to 1916. He studied gas flow, sound speed, optic Doppler effect, shock waves, and perception {Mach band, Mach}. He studied how observers relate to sensations and objects and studied reference frames.
Epistemology
Accelerations and rotations are relative to universe mean mass {Mach's principle, Mach}, and so relative to fixed stars.
Object and physical knowledge cannot depend on sensations, because methods by which people perceive determine sensations. Science terms describe and predict {instrumentalism} but do not refer to physical objects, which people cannot know.
Only sensory experience can verify science ideas {empirio-criticism}.
He lived 1844 to 1894 and tried to measure electric wavelength. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts in motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction} [1892].
He lived 1853 to 1928. He studied Zeeman effect [1892]. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts in motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction, Lorentz} [1892]. He invented motion equations {Lorentz equations of motion} for charged particles in electromagnetic fields [1895], whereas Maxwell's equations are for electromagnetic-field changes. He invented Einstein-Lorentz transformations [1904].
He lived 1852 to 1931 and proved light speed is constant [1895].
He lived 1877 to 1946. He calculated black-body-radiation distribution at low and high frequencies {Rayleigh-Jeans radiation, Jeans} {Rayleigh-Jeans law}, with Rayleigh [1900]. All energy seemed to go into higher field frequencies over time, which is impossible {ultraviolet catastrophe, Jeans}: energy density = 8 * pi * k * T / (lambda^4), where T = temperature, k = Boltzmann constant, and lambda = wavelength.
Large-enough {Jeans mass} {Jeans instability} {Jeans length} interstellar clouds can collapse to form stars, depending on temperature, mass, and density.
Two things that can interact share a feature. For example, things that interact gravitationally both have mass. Perhaps, thoughts about perceptions relate to stimulus energies.
He lived 1879 to 1955, discovered photoelectric effect [1905], invented special relativity [1905], and analyzed Brownian motion [1905]. He developed general theory of relativity [1915]. He predicted Bose-Einstein condensation [1924]. He stated Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) ideas [1935]. Crystal vibrations and rotations cause high heat capacity.
He lived 1864 to 1909 and unified space and time {space-time, Minkowski} in four dimensions [1908]. Light travels at 45-degree angle to make a light-cone, inside which events can affect future events and past events can affect point. Distances between events involve positive time and negative distances: s^2 = t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2.
He lived 1872 to 1934, used curved time coordinate (in which distant clocks can run slower or faster), and demonstrated how general relativity required expanding universe [1917]. With curved time coordinate, symmetrical space with no matter or energy can have constant positive curvature (attraction) {de-Sitter space} {de-Sitter space-time}, with no expansion or contraction. (After universe origin, universe probably was like de-Sitter space.)
With curved time coordinate, symmetrical space with no matter or energy can have constant negative curvature (repulsion) {anti-de-Sitter space} {anti-de-Sitter space-time}, with no expansion or contraction. In anti-de-Sitter space, object motions are harmonic. Space boundary is constant at infinity, but space radius depends on curvature and is finite.
He lived 1888 to 1925 and mathematically demonstrated that general relativity required expanding universe [1918]. He imagined universes {Friedmann space-time} that had uniform matter and energy, expanded forever, were infinite, and had no boundary [1922]. Howard Robertson and Arthur G. Walker [1936] elaborated {Friedmann-Robertson-Walker space-time} {FRW universe}, because universe is like FRW universe.
He lived 1882 to 1944 and led expedition to test Einstein's general-relativity theory [1919].
He lived 1885 to 1954. If space has some tiny, curled-up spatial dimensions, besides the three long spatial dimensions, general relativity and electromagnetism can unify [1919].
He lived 1882 to 1970 and studied time measurement, ion formation, and crystal energy. He contributed to matrix mechanics as quantum mechanics explanation and to electron probability waves [1925]. He developed the Born-Oppenheimer relation between molecular rotation, vibration, and electronic structure [1926].
He lived 1894 to 1977 and invented Kaluza-Klein theory [1926].
He lived 1896 to 1950 and developed kinematic relativity theory [1932].
He lived 1911 to ?, studied S-matrix theory [1937], and invented Wheeler-Feynman absorption theory [1949]. Perhaps, universe {participatory universe} stayed in superposed quantum states until consciousness arose and determined states that led to consciousness.
He lived 1912 to and invented a star-evolution theory [1938].
He lived 1916 to 1997, found background microwave radiation, and studied gravitational theory [1964].
Bell lived 1943 to ?. Hewish lived 1924 to ?. They discovered neutron-star pulsars, which look to Earth observers like microwave-beam lighthouses, spinning dozens of times each second [1967].
He lived 1936 to ? and used renormalization group theory to remove infinities from masses and distances in phase transitions and to preserve fractal dimension [1969 to 1974].
He lived 1927 to 1992.
He found the Bekenstein-Hawking formula [1971] for black hole entropy, which shows that entropy depends on surface area and so mass squared.
Thorne lived 1941 to ?. Misner lived 1932 to ?. Wheeler lived 1911 to ?.
They invented supersymmetric quantum field theory [1973].
Glashow lived 1932 to ?. They invented grand unification of strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces [1974], with Steven Weinberg and Helen Quinn.
They invented string theory including gravity and strong force [1974].
They measured binary-pulsar rotation period, which increased by gravity radiation exactly as predicted by general relativity [1974].
He studied relativity.
He lived 1933 to ? and studied universe origin. He worked with Abdus Salam on electroweak theory. Why does our universe have the cosmological constant that allows life to form {coincidence problem}. Perhaps, there are many universes, and some have that cosmological constant.
In universes with general relativity, antigravity starting 10^-34 second after universe origin can cause exponential inflation [1979]. Universe goes from smaller than proton to softball size.
He lived 1917 to 2003. Dissipative-structure subsystems can reduce entropy, if energy is available and subsystems use only their own processes.
They invented first string theory describing all four forces and matter, with supersymmetry, bosons, and fermions [1984]. Previously, bosonic string theory had no supersymmetry or fermions.
He lived 1939 to 1988 and studied complexity.
He lived 1942 to ? and studied singularities and black holes. He predicted that black holes can radiate random thermal radiation and so have temperature [1974]. Black-hole surfaces create virtual-particle pairs, and one particle can leave black hole, resulting in mass loss and thermal radiation (Hawking radiation).
He lived 1946 to ? and studied the holographic principle [1993] and how it applies to black holes.
He lived 1951 to ? and used duality to solve string theory problems [1995]. In one string-theory version, strong coupling is equivalent to weak coupling, for calculation.
He studied time.
He studied quantum loop theory.
Universe expansion is accelerating [1998].
He thought that wave/particle duality is contradiction but is still true [1999].
He studied string theory.
He studied dark energy.
He lived 1564 to 1642 and invented {pendulum clock} {compound microscope}.
He established pendulum isochronism. He noted constant gravity acceleration: heavy weights and light weights fall with same acceleration. He invented force parallelogram and found motion laws. He developed the idea of Permanence of Form.
He found that integers have one-to-one correspondence with squares and found curve areas and volumes.
He perfected refracting telescopes, invented in Netherlands [1608].
He described Jupiter moons [1610], Moon craters and mountains, sunspots [1613], Venus phases, and Milky-Way-galaxy stars. He described how Earth moved around Sun. He used curve lengths and areas in astronomy.
He saw the seven photoreceptors in compound-eye optical elements.
Epistemology
Physical laws are the same whether one is standing still or moving. Knowledge is about mathematical motion laws and motion relations, not about Forms or Being. Mathematics and measurement are for mechanics and experiments, not just for formal geometry and number theory. Experiments must simplify situation to allow measurement. Measurements suggest best-fitting mathematical formula, hypothesis to which later data can fit.
Metaphysics
In impacts, causes and effects are motion exchanges, not essence transfers and not Form acting on matter, and apply only to object states and motions. Material actions are object movements, with no supernatural or spiritual causes and no teleology.
He lived 1736 to 1806 and invented Coulomb's law [1785]. At fluid boundaries, fluid does not slip {no-slip condition, Coulomb}.
He lived 1745 to 1827 {electrostatic generator}.
He lived 1781 to 1868 and improved Wheatstone's stereoscope {kaleidoscope, Brewster}. Polarization maximizes when polarization angle tangent {Brewster's angle} equals reflecting-medium refractive index {Brewster's law} [1814].
He lived 1802 to 1875. Corresponding eye image points have greater separation for near objects than for distant ones {stereoscope, Wheatstone}.
He lived 1832 to 1919 and invented cathode rays [1861] {spinthariscope}.
He lived 1840 to 1917 and studied feedback loops {mechanical relay}. Loops {feedback loop} can continuously measure output {indicator, feedback}, modify feedback-loop input {executive organ, feedback}, connect indicator and executive organ {transmitter, feedback}, and supply energy {motor, feedback}. Difference between intended goal and indicator measurement modifies feedback-loop input, to bring system output nearer to goal.
He lived 1874 to 1937 and invented wireless communication telegraphy, radio [1895], filters, amplifiers, and tuners {radio, Marconi}.
He lived 1873 to 1961 and invented vacuum tube amplifiers [1906] {vacuum tube amplifier}.
He lived 1890 to 1954.
He lived 1912 to 1977 and developed rockets [1942].
He lived 1900 to 1979 and invented holograms and Gabor filter [1946]. Instruments cannot measure both frequency and time precisely and simultaneously. Impulses happen at precise times, but impulses have wide component-frequency range. For one frequency, wave cycle happens over wave period. The tradeoff defines the minimum information quantity {quantum, information}.
He lived 1910 to 1999. Oil with iron filings {magnetorheological fluid, Rabinow} can turn solid in magnetic fields [1949]. Electrorheological fluids become solid in high electric fields.
Townes lived 1915 to ?. Schawlow lived 1921 to 1999. Aleksandr M. Prokhorov [1916 to 2002] and Nikolai G. Basov [1922 to 2001] of Russia discovered maser and laser ideas, as did Joseph Weber [1919 to ?] of USA.
He lived 1926 to ? and invented the bubble chamber [1955].
He lived 1909 to 1991 and invented Polaroid photography {instant photography} and polaroid filters.
Epistemology
Color perception depends on relative reflectances. People see colors based on red, green, and blue intensity ratios from neighboring and separated regions {retinex theory, Land}. Two-color mixtures can produce full color range.
He lived 1946 to ? {compact disc}.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225