Sugar substitutes {artificial sweetener} include saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame, and mannitol.
Connective tissue, skin, cornea, and bone have saccharides {chondroitin sulfate}. Chondroitinase cleaves and dissolves extracellular-matrix chondroitin.
Plants have molecules {fiber, nutrition}| that people cannot digest into smaller molecules and/or absorb across intestinal wall into blood.
solubility
Some fiber {insoluble fiber} {crude fiber} does not absorb water. Other fiber {soluble fiber} {dietary fiber} can absorb water.
bond
Cellulose is crude fiber. Lignin, hemicellulose, and pectin are dietary fiber. Cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, and inulin have glycosidic bonds that are not the same as for starch and glycogen. Human intestine cannot break them down.
sources
Soluble fiber is in fruit, oats, barley, beans, peas, lentils, peanuts, and some vegetables. Insoluble fiber is in fruits, grains, nuts, and vegetables. Starchy vegetables have low fiber.
functions
Insoluble fiber adds bulk and maintains regular bowel movements. Soluble fiber increases bile-acid secretion. Soluble fiber absorbs water. Soluble fiber affects blood sugar and cholesterol levels.
Three-carbon monosaccharides {glycerol, saccharide} can have alcohol group at each carbon.
Extracellular proteins {glycoprotein}| have saccharides bound to asparagine, serine, threonine, and lysine. Egg-white ovalbumin, egg-white avidin, mucoprotein, collagen, eye-lens protein, basement-membrane protein, ribonuclease, pepsin, cholinesterase, chorionic gonadotropin, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, fibrinogen, gamma-globulin, blood-group proteins, and fish-blood antifreeze protein are glycoproteins.
Animal-cell coats and ground substance have glycosphingolipids, acid mucopolysaccharide, and glycoprotein, which are soft, flexible, and adhesive and are for cell recognition and growth inhibition.
Arterial wall has carbohydrate blood-coagulation blocker {heparin}.
Acid mucopolysaccharides, mucins, and mucoprotein make fluid {mucus}|. Mucus keeps inner body surfaces slippery or sticky. Mouth mucus is antibacterial.
Seeds and fruit have chemicals {psoralen} sensitive to light. Light makes them react with DNA.
To enter TCA cycle, pyruvate {pyruvate} first converts to acetyl-CoA. NAD+ attaches acetyl to CoA by thioester bond and makes carbon dioxide and two NADH, in irreversible reaction. Process uses free enzymes in inner mitochondria. ATP inhibition regulates reaction. Arsenate can poison reaction.
Pigments {pigment compounds} are chlorophyll, carotenoid, xanthophyll, and physobilin. Light oxidizes pigments. Donated electron adds to NADP+. Electron-transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation make ATP and oxygen.
Chlorophyll a {chlorophyll}| absorbs orange light, and chlorophyll b absorbs red light, making plants green.
Yellow, red, or purple pigments {carotenoid} absorb at different wavelengths.
Carotenoid {physobilin} absorbs blue or red.
Carotenoid {xanthophyll} absorbs yellow.
Monosaccharides can form polymers {polysaccharide}|, with glycosidic bonds between units. Polysaccharides are not water-soluble and are not sweet.
Seaweed carbohydrate can make gel {agar}|.
Unbranched polysaccharides {cellulose}| in plant cell walls have linked glucose molecules.
Short polysaccharides {dextran} {dextrin}| of 5 to 15 carbons are for energy.
Short polysaccharides {dextrose}| of 5 to 15 carbons are for energy.
Branched polysaccharides {glycogen}| in animals link glucoses and store energy.
Carbohydrates {gum arabic} can be gum.
Polysaccharides {hemicellulose} can link pentose molecules and be in gum.
Linear soluble polymers {hyaluronic acid} can surround egg cell and have disaccharide units.
Carbohydrates {inulin} can be fructose polymers.
Carbohydrates {lignin} can be in tree and grass cell walls. Lignin is hard and woody. It remains when enzymes turn cellulose into sugar.
Two-carbon to ten-carbon polysaccharides {oligosaccharide} can be for energy.
Glucose chains {pectin, polymer}| can be in unripe fruit and be thickeners or gels.
Mouth amylases {ptyalin} can make polysaccharides into dextrin.
In plants, polysaccharides {starch, plant}| can link glucose molecules and store energy. Starches can be unbranched and helical {amylose} or branched {amylopectin}.
Two delta-aminolevulinic acids make porphobilinogen ring, which becomes tetrapyrrole, which makes molecules {porphyrin}|. Porphyrin can make heme. Chlorophyll has porphyrin ring, as does cytochrome oxidase. If bad metabolism causes porphyrin to have no metal inside, porphyrin goes to skin, bones, and teeth, where light makes free radicals {porphyria}.
Iron-containing ring structure {heme} can derive from succinyl-CoA of TCA cycle. Two delta-aminolevulinic acids make porphobilinogen ring, which becomes tetrapyrrole, which makes porphyrin. Porphyrin can make heme. Heme breakdown product is bilirubin, excreted in urine.
Glucose and galactose {hexose} have six carbons. One amino group can bind at glucose second carbon {glucosamine}. Glucosamine is in insect chitin. One amino group can bind to galactose {galactosamine}. Galactosamine is in glycolipids and chondroitin sulfate. One amino group can bind to aldehyde sugars at first carbon {muramic acid} {neuraminic acid}. Muramic acid and neuraminic acid make cell walls.
Sucrose has one glycosidic bond between fructose and glucose, from second carbon to first carbon {invert sugar}|, to make acetal or ketal.
Carbohydrates {monosaccharide}| can have three to seven carbons and one carbonyl group, as in glucose, fructose, mannose, maltose, and galactose. Monosaccharides {triose} can have three carbons, such as glyceraldehyde. Monosaccharides {tetrose} can have four carbons. Monosaccharides {pentose} can have five carbons, such as ribose. Monosaccharides (hexose) can have six carbons. Aldehyde hexoses are glucose, mannose, and galactose. Ketone hexoses include fructose, in honey and fruit. Monosaccharides {heptose} can have seven carbons.
Sugar aldehyde or ketone group can reduce to alcohol group {reduced sugar}|, to make glycerol, inositol, sorbital, and mannitol.
Carbohydrates {sugar}| can be disaccharides. Glycosidic bonds link two monosaccharides. Sucrose, in sugar cane, sugar beets, and corn syrup, has fructose and glucose. Maltose, in malt, has two glucoses.
Lactose, in milk, has galactose and glucose. Lactase gene, for lactose digestion, can stay active after infancy. Regulatory-region mutations happened in Funnel Beaker culture of Sweden and Holland [-4000 to -3000], in Nilo-Saharan peoples of Kenya and Tanzania [-4800 to -700], in Beja people of northeast Sudan [-4800 to -700], and in Afro-Asiatic peoples of north Kenya [-4800 to -700].
5-Chemistry-Biochemistry-Carbohydrate
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Date Modified: 2022.0225