Blood volume is five liters {blood}. Blood flow is five liters per minute.
In capillaries, enzymes {carbonic anhydrase} can convert waste carbon dioxide to carbonic acid, for hemoglobin transport.
Processes {erythropoiesis} can make red blood cells. Erythropoietin makes red-blood cells. Synthetic erythropoietin, epoietin (EPO), can treat anemia.
Centrifuging blood makes cells move to tube bottom, to measure blood-cell percent {hematocrit}|. Male normal is 40% to 50%. Female normal is 36% to 44%. Hematocrit is higher at higher altitudes and with dehydration. Hematocrit is lower in anemia.
Spleen and liver can engulf red blood cells {phagocytize}|.
Red blood cells have agglutinogen antigens and agglutinin antibodies {blood type}|. Blood can have types O, A, B, or AB. If different types mix, they precipitate {agglutination}. Blood can have types M or N. Blood can have Rh factor in 85% of people, or not in 15% of people.
Red blood cells have antigens {agglutinogen} and antibodies {agglutinin}.
Blood groups {ABO blood group} can have type A, type B, type AB, and type O.
gene
Galactosyl transferase gene is on chromosome 9. A and B are co-dominant alleles. O is recessive allele.
diseases
Water-soluble galactosyl transferases can protect people from meningitis, yeast infections, and urinary tract infections but can increase influenza and respiratory synctitial virus. Cholera is highest in type O, middle in A and B, and lowest in AB, so A and B continue to exist {frequency-dependent selection}. Malaria is highest in types A, B, and AB and lowest in type O.
time
Perhaps, Type O is oldest, appearing 50,000 years ago. Perhaps, Type A appeared 25,000 years ago. Perhaps, type B evolved from type O 15,000 years ago. Perhaps, Type AB appeared 1000 years ago.
Blood factors and processes {clotting}| can convert soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin, in three stages.
In first blood-clotting step, platelets attach to disrupted-blood-vessel rough surfaces and disintegrate, aided by protein factors {antihemophilic factor} (AHF) X, VII, XII, XI, IX, VIII, and V, which initiate blood clotting.
Tissue injury releases soluble tissue components {tissue factor} that make thromboplastin enzyme.
Cells release enzymes {thromboplastin}. In second blood-clotting step, thromboplastin, calcium, and factors X, VII, XII, XI, IX, VIII, and V convert thrombinogen to thrombin. Then thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, in four to ten minutes. Heparin and dicumarol prevent making fibrin. Bile deficiency prevents vitamin-K absorption and prevents making fibrin, by decreasing liver proteins.
In third blood-clotting step, blood clots {thrombus} on blood-vessel walls.
People {hemophiliac}| {bleeder} can lack antihemophilic factors and have poor blood clotting.
Proteins {plasmin} can break down blood-clot fibrins and can open clogged arteries. Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) makes plasmin from plasminogen.
Blood has red-bone-marrow giant-cell fragments {platelet}|, which initiate blood clotting and last four days.
Organs {spleen}| can hold red blood cells. Spleen and liver can phagocytize red blood cells.
Blood fluid {plasma}| can be pale yellow and contain proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, salts, gases, lipids, and fatty acids. Plasma is 55% of blood.
proteins
Fibrinogen is for blood clotting. Albumin controls osmolarity and binds minerals. Alpha-globulin, beta-globulin, and gamma-globulin are antibodies.
Lipoprotein binds fat. Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) binds cholesterol and triglycerides. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) binds cholesterol. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) binds nothing.
Apolipoproteins mediate fat transfer to cell receptors. ApoB gene makes apolipoprotein-beta for binding cholesterol. ApoE gene makes apolipoprotein-epsilon for binding triglycerides. ApoA gene and ApoC gene make apolipoproteins. ApoE3 gene binds better than ApoE2 gene or ApoE4 gene, which associate with Alzheimer's disease.
Blood-plasma proteins {albumin, plasma}| can maintain osmotic pressure. Low albumin indicates liver disease or malnutrition.
Fats with polar ends and non-polar ends align in water solution, so non-polar ends are at center and polar ends are on spherical surfaces {micelle}|. Other molecules can be inside.
Plasma {serum}| with precipitated fibrinogen and other clotting factors has no clotting ability.
Disc-shaped cells {red blood cell}| {erythrocyte} contain hemoglobin and have no nucleus.
purpose
Hemoglobin transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
metabolism
In capillaries, carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide to carbonic acid, for hemoglobin transport. Lungs convert carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and breathe carbon dioxide from body.
amount
Blood-oxygen decrease increases red-blood-cell production. Spleen and liver phagocytize red blood cells. Diarrhea can cause polycythemia.
types
Fetuses have a different hemoglobin type. Sickle cell anemia has red blood cells with curved shapes.
Blood has red cells {corpuscle, cell}|.
Bone marrow has immature red blood cells {reticulocyte}|.
Pale cells {white blood cell}| {leukocyte} can have nuclei and move by amoeboid motion.
Spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes make leukocytes {lymphocyte}|. Lymphocytes are 25% to 30% of leukocytes.
Spleen and bone marrow make leukocytes {monocyte}|. Monocytes are 5% to 10% of leukocytes.
White blood cells {phagocyte}| can surround and absorb antigens or dead cells.
Red bone marrow makes leukocytes {basophil}, 0.5% of leukocytes.
Red bone marrow makes leukocytes {eosinophil}, 1% to 4% of leukocytes.
Red bone marrow makes leukocytes {neutrophil}, 60% to 70% of leukocytes.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225