Apes {ape, animal} came from Old World monkeys.
cognition: causation
Apes understand that acting on one object can cause connected-object motion.
cognition: deception
Apes practice deception by distracting attention, so they can steal food or mates [Byrne and Whiten, 1988] [Whiten and Byrne, 1997].
cognition: laughing
Only humans laugh, but young chimpanzees puff air when they play, similar to laughing. Apes can also appear happy. Chimpanzees smile when submitting, but not from happiness. Perhaps, laughter is for alliance making.
cognition: mirror
Some apes can touch body spots they see in mirrors. Some apes seem to recognize themselves in mirrors after a while. Chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos, and humans over two years old can use their reflections in mirrors to perceive body and direct actions. They can recognize themselves and have sense of self. Gorillas, monkeys, and children less than two years old do not [Gallup, 1970] [Gallup, 1998]. Chimps, bonobos, and orangutans can recognize themselves in mirrors immediately or after several-days experience, but gorillas, baboons, and most other primates cannot [Napier, 1976] [Napier, 1977].
cognition: play
Apes like to play.
cognition: self
Chimpanzees have no sense of self and no consciousness of mental states, though they can inspect their bodies using mirrors [Heyes and Galef, 1996] [Heyes, 1998].
cognition: suffering
Apes can suffer, because they can do something about conditions that make them suffer.
biology: parental care
Apes have parental care over long childhoods.
biology: palm walking
Apes used palm walking, not knuckle walking as in monkeys.
biology: reflex
Adult apes have Babiniski reflex, to grasp tree branches with toes.
biology: one sense pathway
In apes, object perception uses one sense pathway involving all senses, as humans do at birth.
biology: pheromone and sex
Sex-hormone-derived pheromones are in skin secretions [Savic et al., 2001] [Savic, 2002] [Sobel et al., 1999].
biology: pheromone receptivity
Baboons secrete female pheromones during receptivity. Community living can synchronize ovulation through olfactory signal. Small pheromone amounts work [Gangestad et al., 2002] [McClintock, 1998] [Schank, 2001] [Stern and McClintock, 1998] [Weller et al., 1999] [Pantages and Dulac, 2000].
biology: serotonin reuptake
Anthropoid apes have different promoter sequence for serotonin reuptake transport gene than humans do.
biology: evolution
Proconsul was lesser ape and was hominid ancestor. It was ape-like in shoulder, elbow, cranium, and teeth dentition. It was monkey-like in long trunk, backbone, pelvis, arm, and hand. At least four species weighed from 10 to 80 kilograms.
communication: sign language
After four years of training, the chimpanzee Washoe acquired over 100 American Sign Language signs. It heard no other language. Some signs were for general classes, rather than just objects and events. Some signs changed or extended. Washoe used sign order. Washoe substituted signs with similar meanings or shapes.
However, no primates develop signing themselves. Humans have to teach them. Humans cue chimpanzees to make signs, and chimpanzees sign to get rewards. Chimpanzees sign to each other socially but not for rewards [Gardner and Gardner, 1969].
communication: signals
Chimpanzees and gorillas cannot learn to use expressions with interruptions. Animal communications always repeat. Behavior, display, or signal redundancy and ritualization increase communication efficiency. Animals often use opposite signals, such as high and low, or loud and soft, for opposite intentions or behavior. Animals can modify signals in different contexts, but they do not rearrange symbol order deliberately nor assign meaning to signal order.
communication: symbol
Apes have 150 to 200 non-linguistic symbols, such as facial expressions, danger and location calls, courtship rituals and displays, grooming, group or family signals, and personal communication between individuals. Humans have 150 to 200 non-linguistic symbols.
communication: word
The bonobo Kanzi used and understood 150 words, typically to express desires or refer to present objects. Learning was instrumental association, with no grammar. Perhaps, it was not referential [Savage-Rumbaugh, 1986].
society
Ape societies have 10 to 100 animals.
Biological Sciences>Zoology>Kinds>Ape
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Date Modified: 2022.0224