Invertebrates {colonial invertebrate}| can have cells {zooid} that aggregate to form organisms, in which cells can specialize. Zooids act like specialized organs. In hydrozooid colonies, ectoderm cells recognize each other using cell-surface proteins from histocompatibility genes. Hydrozooid colonies have nerve-cell zooids. Colonial-invertebrate cells communicate using chemical signals. Colonial invertebrates reproduce by budding. Colonies can form within colonies.
Insect societies {social insect}| have members that share the same gene alleles. Social insects have roles, but insects can modify roles. Signals among insects communicate food sources and coordinate tasks.
Vertebrate societies {social vertebrate} are typically bands or cliques, rather than large groups. Individuals have less genetic similarity, practice less altruism, are more aggressive, have little cooperation, and have learning and traditions.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225