Higher plants {vascular plant}| {tracheophyte} have xylem and phloem conductive tissue for conducting water.
types
Vascular plants include sporophyte plants that make spores and spermatophyte plants that make seeds.
Sporophytes are club mosses (Lycopodiophyta), whisk ferns (Psilotophyta), and horsetails and ferns (Pteridophyta). Club mosses include spike mosses and quillworts.
Spermatophytes are gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms include cycads, gnetae, ginkgoes, conifers, and extinct seed ferns. Angiosperms are flowering plants (Magnoliophyta) and include monocots and dicots.
non-vascular plants
Vascular plants do not include non-vascular plants, such as mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts (Marchantiophyta), and hornworts (Anthocerotophyta). Vascular plants do not include green algae (Chlorophyta or Charophyta). Vascular plants do not include plant-like thallophytes, such as non-green algae or fungi.
parts
Vascular plants have roots in soil or another substrate, leaves for photosynthesis and chemical activities, and stems to connect roots to leaves.
reproduction
Main plant is sporophyte, and gametophyte is small plant or is in sporophyte.
In dark and light conditions, plants can change leaf and flower positions {sleep movement}.
Vascular plants can be spore-bearing seedless plants {sporophyte}, such as club mosses, ferns, and horsetails.
Vascular seed plants {embryophyte} {spermatophyte, plant} are gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms include cycads, ginkgoes, gnetae, conifers, and extinct seed ferns. Angiosperms are flowering plants and are monocots or dicots.
Water and nutrients flow both up and down {circulation, plant} in xylem and phloem.
Water-molecule attractions pull water from root through stem to leaf {cohesion theory}.
Leaf-stomata water evaporation {transpiration}| pulls water up from roots. Transpiration depends on osmosis. Transpiration causes forests to be cool and humid.
Phloem fluid goes from leaves to stems to roots {translocation, plant}. Low temperature, low oxygen, or poison can block translocation.
Xylem and phloem fluid {plant sap} {sap}| contains latex, which aids circulation.
Plant sap contains organic molecules {latex}| that aid circulation. Rubber, chicle, and opium are latexes.
Salts and water absorbed by roots create water pressure {root pressure} that pushes water from roots through stem to leaves.
Root cells actively transport minerals. Root cells absorb water by osmosis, to dilute minerals pumped into root cells. Water absorption causes pressure {turgor pressure} on cell walls. Turgor pressure provides cell support and shapes non-woody plants.
Too-low cell water makes low turgidity, and cells can burst {plasmolysis}.
Plant tissues {plant tissue} include conductive tissue, epidermis, fundamental tissue, and meristem.
Plant tissue {conductive tissue} can be xylem or phloem.
Conductive plant tissue {xylem}| can conduct water and salts.
Long thin xylem cells {tracheid} join end to end to make long open cellulose tubes, which can thicken by lignin secretion.
Conductive plant tissue {phloem}| can conduct organic nutrients.
Phloem cells join end-to-end using perforated plates, making tubes {sieve tube} outside cambium.
Cells {companion cell} near sieve tubes regulate sieve tubes.
In leaf and flower soft parts, stem pith, and root cortex, plant tissue {fundamental plant tissue} can produce and store food.
Fundamental tissue {chlorenchyma} can have cells with chloroplasts and large vacuoles.
Fundamental tissue {collenchyma} can have cells, under epidermis, with thick walls at corners for support.
Fundamental tissue {sclerenchyma} can have cells, under epidermis, with thick walls for support.
Plant tissue {meristem}| can have apical meristem and cambium.
Meristem {apical meristem} can be at root and stem tips.
Meristem {cambium, plant tissue}| can be in root and stem layers.
Plant tissue {protective tissue} can have cells with thick cell walls.
Protective tissue {epidermis, plant tissue} can be on upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Protective tissue {cork, plant} can be in stems and roots.
Epidermis secretes waxy substances {cutin}| that reduce water loss.
Cork secretes chemicals {suberin}, which prevent water from entering cells and cause cells to die, leaving cell walls to provide structure.
Plants have budding leaves {shoot}|.
New plants {sprout}| leave germinating seeds.
Cut grasses {straw}| can dry.
Vascular plant parts {leaf}| can originate from stems at buds. Dicot leaves have petiole and blade with veins. Monocot leaves have central veins.
Leaves change color in autumn, as chlorophyll decomposes and cell sap makes red and purple pigments {anthocyanin, leaf}. Carotenoids make leaves yellow and orange.
Leaves originate from stems at plant structures {bud}|. Buds can be at stem ends {terminal bud} or on stem sides {lateral bud}.
Between upper and lower epidermis, leaf middle layers {mesophyll} have chloroplasts.
Layers near upper epidermis can have special cells {palisade cell, leaf}.
Dicot flower bunches have small flower stalks {pedicel}.
For gas diffusion, leaf openings {stomata}| alter surrounding-cell turgor pressure, to open by day and close at night.
Dicot leaves have stalks {petiole} and blades.
Dicot leaves have flat parts {blade}|, with forked vascular bundles {vein, leaf}.
Leaves fall after cell layers {abscission layer} cover petiole bottoms.
After abscission layers cover petiole bottoms, cork {scar}| covers layers.
Vascular plant parts {root, plant}| can anchor plants to substrates, hold plants upright, absorb water and minerals, and store food. Roots have caps, elongation zones, root hairs, and mature root near stem.
Tulips, onions, and garlic have roots {bulb}.
Roots have growing points {cap, root} at tips.
Roots have regions {elongation zone} {zone of elongation} in which cells lengthen by absorbing water.
Roots have mature cells with hairs {root hair}|, for water and mineral absorption.
Roots have regions {maturation zone} {zone of maturation} of mature cells with root hairs, for water and mineral absorption.
Root tissue layers are outer, middle {cortex, plant}, and inner {endodermis} {cambium, root}. Cortex is thickest.
In old root parts, regions {pericycle} can develop into new side roots or into new xylem and phloem.
Root centers {stele, root} have phloem, xylem, pericycle, and cambium.
Plants can have roots {adventitious root}| that grow from stem or leaves.
Plants can have many similar-size roots {diffuse root} or one large main root {taproot}|.
Vascular plant parts {stem, plant}| can connect roots to leaves. Dicots have three stem layers: central pith, vascular-bundle ring, and outer cortex. Stem pith stores food. Stem vascular bundles have cambium to heal plant wounds. Stem cortex has dead-cell outer layer and live-cell inner layer. Monocots have epidermis, stomata, vascular bundles throughout stem, no pith, and surface cortex cells with thick cell-wall layers.
Plants can have bark swellings {lenticel}, which allow air diffusion.
Stems have growing points {node, stem} for flowers and leaves.
Central soft stem parts {pith}| have fundamental plant tissue.
Stems can have woody sharp points {thorn}|.
Underground stems can have bulb-like regions {corm}.
Ferns and grasses have underground stems {rhizome}|.
Plants can have long horizontal ground stems {stolon}.
Some rhizomes {tuber, root}| store starch.
Plants {herbaceous plant} {herb, stem}| can have soft, green, thin stems.
Herbaceous plants {annual}| can live one season, from early spring to late autumn.
Herbaceous plants {biennial}| can live between twelve and twenty-four months.
Plants {woody plant} can have tough, thick, hard stem. Stem is hard because it has lignin.
Woody plants {perennial} can live longer than one year.
Rare plants {monocarpic plant} flower only once and live from 2 to 100 years.
Some perennial plants {shrub}| have many similar woody stems.
Some perennial plants {tree, stem}| have one main woody stem.
In perennials, stem xylem and phloem grow each summer and stop growing in winter, so years leave distinct rings {annual ring}| underneath cortex.
Outer xylem layers {sapwood}| conduct sap.
Inner xylem layers {heartwood}| are for strength.
Cotton and flax have balls {boll}| that hold seeds.
Cereals have outer husks {chaff}|, removed before eating.
Corn has cylinders {cob}|, with outside seeds.
Pumpkin, squash, and cucumber have fruits with hard coverings {gourd}|.
shrub {box shrub}.
brier {bramble, brier}|.
Rose bushes and greenbrier {brier}| have thorns on branches.
Tight small-tree and shrub groups {maquis} can be on Mediterranean-Sea north side.
Grape and cucumber vine twining plant stems have curling pieces {tendril}| that hold base objects.
Small trees and/or shrubs can grow close together {thicket}|.
Plants {tumbleweed}| with many intertwined branches can break at ground level and then roll with wind.
Plants {vine}| can have pliable stems that twine around, climb, or run along surfaces.
tree branch {bough}|.
Small trees and/or shrubs can grow close together {copse}| {coppice}.
dicot wood {hardwood}|.
Bacteria or fungi can make tree tissue lose structure {rot}|.
young tree {sapling}|.
sprouted tree {seedling}|.
shoot or twig {sprig}|.
Tree parts fall into ocean and return to shore bleached and worn {driftwood}|.
branch bundle {fagot, branch}| {faggot}.
Dead wood can absorb mineral water and harden into stone {petrified wood}|.
Spruce, aspen, or pine wood {pulpwood}| can make paper.
Sporophytes {club moss}| can have spaced, erect rhizome stems, roots, and leaves but have no cambium. Club mosses include quillworts {quillwort}. Sporangia at stem tips are specialized leaves.
Sporophytes {horsetail}| can have spaced, erect rhizome stems with branches, branching roots, and small leaf whorls. Sporangia are at main stem tips. Horsetails are bushy with hard cell walls, because they contain silica.
Primitive sporophytes {psilopsida} can have spaced, erect rhizome stems, but not roots or leaves.
Lowest pteropsida {fern}| make no seeds or flowers. Ferns make haploid spores at specialized-leave bottoms. Spores drop to ground and grow into gametophytes, which make eggs that cross-pollinate to form new plants. Regular ferns have perennially erect stems, rhizomes with roots, and compound leaves in buds. Ferns have no xylem.
Ferns can get food and moisture from air {epiphyte, fern} {aerophyte} {airplant} (Tillandsia).
Ferns {asparagus fern} can reproduce using spores and have fronds.
Ferns {bracken} {brake, plant} came from Southeast Asia.
Ferns can look like green antlers {platycerium} {staghorn fern} {elkhorn fern} {moosehorn fern}.
Highest vascular-plant phylum {pteropsida} contains ferns and seed plants. Seed plants are conifers and flowering plants.
Gymnosperms and angiosperms {seed plant} {spermatophyte, seeds} make seeds.
Plants {bed plant} can be ground cover.
Seeds can sprout soon after planting {domesticated plant}|, but wild-plant seeds sprout over longer periods. Domesticated plants make no seeds, self-reproduce, or reproduce near each other, to preserve mutations. Wild plants makes seeds and spread out. Domesticated plants have mutations specific to harvesting. Domesticated peas mutate the pea-pod-popping gene to keep peas in pods. Domesticated wheat mutates the wheat-stalk-breaking gene to keep wheat on stalks.
Plants {legume}| {pulse, legume} can include alfalfa and white, red, crimson, and alsike clovers.
Legumes include bitter vetch in Mesopotamia, peas in Mesopotamia, chickpeas in Mesopotamia, cowpeas in Sahel, groundnuts in Sahel, peanuts in Andes and Amazon, lentils in Mesopotamia, lima beans in Andes, beans in Mesoamerica and Andes and Amazon, tepary beans in Mesoamerica, scarlet runner beans in Mesoamerica, soybeans in China, adzuki beans in China, mung beans in China, and hyacinth beans in India.
Legumes include black and green gram in India.
bacteria
Rhizobium bacteria are symbiotic with legumes and convert atmospheric nitrogen gas to nitrates and nitrites.
Seed plants {tree, plant} can include angiosperms and conifers.
Reeds, papyrus, sedge, lotus, and water hyacinth {water plant} grow in water.
Middle pteropsida {gymnosperm}| are seed plants, have no flowers, have no xylem, and have no woody fibers {softwood}. Gymnosperms use naked seeds, sometimes in cones. Gymnosperm classes include cycads, ginkgoes, gnetales, conifers, and extinct seed ferns.
Gymnosperms {cycad} (Cycas) (Cycadophyta) can be small plants {sago palm}, have short trunks with feathery leaves out tops, and make cones.
Gymnosperms {gingko} {maiden hair tree} (Gingkophyta) can be from China, have fan-like leaves on short twigs, and have fruits with bad odors and edible kernels.
Gymnosperms {gnetophyte} (Gnetophyta) {gnetae} {gnetales} include mormon tea.
Gymnosperms {conifer}| (Coniferophyta) (Pinophyta) can have seeds in cones, which have two types. Conifers include pine, cedar, spruce, fir, and redwood.
Trees {arborvitae} can have small cones, have both sexes on same tree, and be moist, cool, and evergreen: American, giant cedar or Western red cedar or shinglewood, Oriental, and Sawara-cypress. Incense cedar relates to cypress and Sawara-cypress. Northern white cedar is eastern arborvitae.
Trees {aspidistra} can be evergreen, have perennial large leaves, and live in Asia.
Trees {bald cypress} can be in south United States swamps, be tall, have root "knees" {knee, tree}, have small cones, and have needles that fall in autumn.
Trees {cedar} can have two kinds. Coast cedar, Atlantic cedar, or southern white cedar is small to big, has small cones, is evergreen, and lives in swamps and wet areas. Western cedar is on both coasts, likes wet ground, has catkins, has red-brown small cones, has scale-like blue-green leaves, grows slowly, and has twigs that droop from branches. Cedars include Atlantic white cedar or swamp cedar, Port Orford white cedar or Oregon cedar or Lawson cypress, and Alaska yellow cedar or Alaska cypress or yellow cypress.
Trees {cypress} can grow in west and southwest USA, have small red-brown cones, like moist areas, grow in stands, and have both sexes on same tree: Monterey cypress and Arizona cypress.
Trees {fir} can be aromatic, have short needles, be evergreen, live in Pacific Northwest, and have cones upright on branches. Firs include Alpine fir, noble fir, grand fir or yellow fir, gray fir, balsam or Canada balsam or Eastern fir, silver fir, red fir, Nordmann fir, and white fir or white balsam. Douglas firs are tall.
Trees {heath, tree} can be evergreen, have orange branches and leathery dark green leaves, and have orange-red small drupes in clusters. Pacific madrone or madrona lives on USA west coast and relates to mountain laurel, rhododendron, azalea, and blueberry.
Trees {hemlock} {spruce} {water hemlock} can have short needles, be dark green, have tiny cones, grow fast, be evergreen, and have cones that hang down. Hemlocks include Eastern hemlock or Canadian hemlock, Western hemlock or Pacific hemlock, black hemlock or Mountain hemlock, and Carolina hemlock. Spruces include Engelmann spruce or mountain spruce, Oriental spruce, weeping spruce, red spruce or Eastern spruce, black spruce or bog spruce, Norway spruce, Colorado spruce or blue spruce, white spruce, coast spruce or sitka spruce or yellow spruce, and Atlas cedar.
Trees {hornbeam} can have hop-like fruit clusters, have catkins, be deciduous, and live in east USA: Eastern hop hornbeam and American hop hornbeam.
Trees {ironwood} {blue beech} {American hornbeam} (Carpinus) can have blue and gray smooth bark, be deciduous, have catkins, and live in east USA.
Trees {juniper} can be aromatic, have blue fleshy cones, have short needles, be evergreen, and have needles gray above and green below. Junipers include common juniper, Rocky Mountain juniper, Utah juniper, alligator juniper, creeping juniper, savin, Sierra juniper or western juniper, Lawson-cypress, and Eastern red cedar or red juniper.
Trees {larch} {tamarack} can shed leaves in autumn, have needles in clumps on short side twigs, have small cones, have short needles, and live in north USA swamps: European larch, Western larch, and American larch or tamarack or Eastern larch or black larch.
Trees {pine, tree} can have bundles of two to five long or short needles, have big cones, be evergreen, and have catkins. Pines include bristlecone pine, digger pine, jack pine, limber pine, loblolly pine, lodgepole pine, longleaf pine, mountain pine, pinyon pine, pond pine, slash pine, sugar pine, table-mountain pine, whitebark pine, and yellow pine or shortleaf pine. Other pines are Austrian pine or black pine, Coulter pine, Eastern white pine, Himalayan pine, Jeffrey pine, red pine or Norway pine, Ponderosa pine, Scotch pine, Southern pine or pitch pine, Swiss stone pine, Torrey pine, Virginia pine, and Western white pine. Pinyon pines {pi-on pine} have edible seeds {pine nut, pine} {Indian nut}. Bristlecone pines can live 4000 years.
Trees {redwood} {sequoia} can be evergreen with small to medium cones and grow to 300 feet: coast redwoods and Sequoias or Big Trees.
Trees {yew, tree} can have medium height, be evergreen, have little red drupes, be dark green, and have sexes on different trees: Pacific yew or Western yew, European yew, English yew, Japanese yew, torreya, podocarpus, and American yew or ground hemlock shrub.
Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta) {flowering plant} {angiosperm}| have xylem, flowers with pistils, and fruits with enclosed seeds. Flowering plants are the highest pteropsida.
Angiosperms can lose leaves each fall {deciduous}|.
Day length {photoperiodism} affects flowering. Flowers can appear in winter, in summer, or all year. Photoperiodism can affect tubers and other plant characteristics.
If VRN1 gene is present, 40-degree temperatures for several weeks trigger flowering {vernalization}.
Flowers {flower}| are modified stems. Flowers have receptacle, calyx, sepals, petals, stamen, and pistil.
flower types
Flowers can have stamen, pistils, petals, and sepals {complete flower} or lack something {incomplete flower}.
stamen and pistil types
Flowers can have functional stamen and pistil {perfect flower}, functioning pistil only {pistillate flower}, or functional stamen only {stamenate flower}.
imperfect flowers
Date palm, willow, and poplar have imperfect flowers. Plants can have separate staminate and pistillate plants {dioecious plant}, as in holly trees and pistachio trees. Plants {monoecious plant} can have separate male and female flowers on same plant, as in corn and pecan trees. Plants can have only male flowers at growing-season beginning but later have male and female flowers, as in cucumbers and squash.
temperature
Some flowers have cone-shaped top-surface cells that focus sunlight onto lower-cell petal pigments, making flowers warmer.
Plants can have one flower {solitary flower} per stem.
floret
Plants can have flower clusters {floret} on stems in racemose or cyme form {inflorescence}.
racemose
Florets can start from bottom and go up in spikes, racemes, corymbs, umbels, or heads {racemose inflorescence}. Many stemless florets can attach to long flower stems or peduncles {spike inflorescence}, as in gladiolus. Florets can be on small stems attached to peduncles {raceme inflorescence}, as in snapdragon. Florets can have random stalks and pedicels along peduncles {corymb inflorescence}, so florets make flat round tops, as in yarrow. Corymbs can have pedicels that all arise from one peduncle point {umbel inflorescence}, as in dill. Many stemless florets can arrange as in daisies {head inflorescence} {composite inflorescence}.
cyme
Top florets can open first and bloom downward along peduncles {cyme inflorescence}. Florets can be opposite along peduncles {dischasium cyme inflorescence}, as in baby's breath. Lower florets can be on the same peduncle side {helicoid cyme inflorescence}, as in freesia and statice. Florets can alternate along peduncles {scorpioid cyme inflorescence}, as in tomato and potato.
Flowers can attach to stems at widened spots {receptacle}.
Flowers have sepal concentric circles {calyx}|.
Flowers have calyx of outside leaflets {sepal}|.
Flowers have flowery leaves {petal}|.
Flowers have anthers on structures {stamen}|.
Flowers can have male sex organs {anther}| {antheridia} to make male sex cells, which make pollen sacs on stamens.
Anther sacs {microsporangia} develop male sex cells into microspores.
Microsporangia develop male sex cells into four spores {microspore}. Two microspores are tube nuclei. Two microspores are generative nuclei. One tube nucleus and one generative nucleus make one pollen grain, so process makes two pollen grains.
One tube nucleus and one generative nucleus make one grain {pollen grain} {pollen}|. Pollen grains leave stamens to try to land on stigmas.
Flowers have center structures {pistil, flower}|. Pistils have ovaries, styles, and stigmas.
Pistils have top parts {stigma, flower}|.
Pistils have middle parts {style, flower}.
Pistils have egg-making organs {carpel, flower}|, in which ovules develop.
Carpels have female sex cells {ovule}. Ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which one becomes egg nucleus, two become polar nuclei, three are generative nuclei, and two form tube nuclei.
Ovules develop to make sacs {megasporangium}, with female spores {megaspore}.
Flowers have female sex organs {archegonia}.
Spermatophytes produce male microspores and female megaspores. Male pollen must transfer from anther to stigma, by wind {wind-pollinated flower} or by insect, animal, or bird pollinators {pollinator-pollinated flower}. Wind-pollinated flowers do not have fancy flowers or nectar. Spermatophytes transport pollen down pollen tubes to megaspores and unite gametes {pollination}|, to make fertilized embryos. Seeds have one embryo surrounded by endosperm, surrounded by epidermis. Seeds are transportable units.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which two {tube nuclei} form tubes. After pollen grains land on stigmas, ovule and pollen tube nuclei form tubes down through styles to ovules.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which three {generative nucleus} participate in fertilization. One generative nucleus divides. Second generative nucleus enters egg nucleus. Female-ovule polar nuclei and third generative nucleus fuse to make endosperm nucleus. Ovule and pollen generative nuclei make embryo {double fertilization}.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which two {polar nucleus} become pole markers. Polar nuclei and third generative nucleus fuse to make endosperm nucleus.
Pollination makes fertilized gametes {embryo, plant}.
Ovule polar nuclei and third generative nucleus combine to make a nucleus {endosperm nucleus}.
Seeds have nutrient layers {endosperm} that surround embryos and have epidermis coverings. Endosperm nucleus makes endosperm.
After double fertilization, flowers fall off. Ovules thicken walls to form seeds. Ovaries enlarge to make new organs {fruit}|.
Fruits are mature-ovule seeds and ovary walls {pericarp}. Ovary walls can be fleshy, as in apple, or dry and hard, as in maple. Seeds can be in ovary, as in apples, peaches, oranges, squash, and cucumbers. Seeds can be on surface, as in corn and strawberry. Fleshy fruits can have one or more seeds and skin, as tomato, cranberry, banana, and grape. Compound inferior ovaries can have many seeds in thick flesh {pome}, as in pear and apple.
botanical fruit
Tomato, squash, cucumber, and eggplant {botanical fruit} develop from flowers and so are not like vegetables.
dehiscent
Some fruits do not split open to release seed {indehiscent} and are typically samaras. Dry fruits can have one seed that splits open {dehiscent}, as in walnut.
Sepals, petals, or receptacles can be fruit parts {accessory fruit}, as in apple. Accessory fruits {aggregate-accessory fruit} can have edible enlarged receptacles, as in strawberry and blackberry.
Fruits {aggregate fruit} can have simple flowers, with one corolla, one calyx, one stem, and many ovaries. Aggregate fruits can be from flowers with several pistils, as in raspberry and blackberry.
Fleshy fruits {berry, fruit}| can have pulpy walls.
Fruits {drupe}| can have stones, as in peach and apricot. One-seed fleshy fruits can have fleshy outer pericarp and bony inner pericarp {endocarp}.
Seeds can join to stalks {hilum}.
Fruit clusters can unite {multiple fruit}, as in pineapple. Multiple fruits have separate and independent flower clusters, with calyx and corolla, as in pineapple, fig, and beet.
Dry fruits {nut}| have shells.
Seeds {samara}| can have wings, as in ash, elm, and maple.
Fruits {simple fruit} can be from flowers with one pistil, such as cherry, date, and palm. Dry simple fruits have paper, leather, or hard ovary walls. Pods can split into two sides {valve, pod} with seeds attached to one edge, as in peanut, pea, bean, and other legumes. Dry thin-walled fruits or pods {capsule, fruit} can have more than one seed and several parts separated by grooved lines {carpel, fruit}, as in poppy.
Mature fertilized ovules {seed, plant}| have immature plants {embryo, seed}; protein, carbohydrate, or fat food supply {endosperm layer}, except in orchid; and soft inner linings {micropyle} or hard outer coverings {seed coat} to prevent water from entering seeds early. Seeds can remain dormant, if they have thick coats, low water, and starches for food.
Angiosperms {monocot}| {monocotyledon} can have one embryo seed leaf, one straight leaf vein, flower parts in threes, and xylem throughout.
Angiosperms {dicot}| {dicotyledon} can have two embryo seed leaves, branching leaf veins, flower parts in fours or fives, and xylem in rings or stem center.
Warmth, moisture, and oxygen start seed growth {germination}|.
First, a filament {suspensor} of cells grows. At suspensor end, one cell divides to make embryo, as a round cell mass. Embryo then makes cotyledon.
Embryos make primary seed leaves {cotyledon}|, which have a central axis. Angiosperms are monocotyledons or dicotyledons. Seed leaves enclose embryo but are not like mature leaves.
Axis above seed leaves {epicotyl} becomes stem and leaves.
Axes {hypocotyl} can be below seed leaves, be beside radicle, and have immature stems.
Immature leaves {plumule} can be beside hypocotyl.
After seeds absorb water, axis {radicle} below hypocotyl grows and emerges from seed to make primary root. Root grows down, pulling axis and cotyledon out of seed coat.
Outline of Knowledge Database Home Page
Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225