He lived -535 to -440 and dissected animals. Body has opposing powers, hot/cold and wet/dry, which balance in health. Galen later used this idea.
He lived -460 to -377. The "father of medicine" wrote case histories, disease observations, and Hippocratic oath. He described trephining skull holes. Disease results from humor essence imbalance.
He lived -335 to -280, dissected human body, and compared to other animal bodies. He described brain, brain ventricles, heart, heart valves, nervous system, sense and motor nerves, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, and lens. He founded medical school at Alexandria.
He lived -304 to -250, dissected animals and humans, and described brain, brain ventricles, heart, heart valves, nervous system, sense and motor nerves, cornea, sclera, choroid, retina, and lens.
He lived 131 to 201 and probably developed the fourth syllogism figure. He diagnosed disease by pulse, dissected animals, and observed living and dead nerves, blood, and organs. Blood flows back and forth through body. Following Erasistratus [-280], body has three spirit types {pneuma, Galen}: natural spirit from liver, vital spirit from left heart ventricle, and animal spirit from brain. The four temperaments {temperaments, Galen} are choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic, and sanguine.
He lived 1514 to 1564 and studied animal and human anatomy.
He lived 1580 to 1638. With his father, he helped invent compound microscopes and used them.
He lived 1628 to 1694, observed plant and animal tissues under microscope, and started embryology and histology.
He lived 1632 to 1723 and observed bacteria [1674], yeast, protozoa, sperm, and capillary blood corpuscles under microscope.
He lived 1709 to 1751, was materialist, and was Boerhaave's student. Cells have intrinsic motion. Human and animal brains are similar.
He lived 1741 to 1801.
He lived 1774 to 1842, studied reciprocal innervation and haptic perception, and related muscles to facial expressions. Spinal-nerve anterior and posterior roots have separate functions {Bell-Magendie law, Bell}: dorsal root is sensory, and ventral root is motor [1822].
He lived 1758 to 1828, founded phrenology, and studied brain white matter, gray matter, and ganglia.
He lived 1787 to 1869 and studied brain neurons. He said fingerprints are unique [1823]. As light intensity decreases, red objects fade faster than blue objects {Purkinje effect} [1825]. He discovered germinal vesicles [1825], skin sweat glands [1833], Purkinje cells [1837], and Purkinje fibers [1839]. He digested protein with pancreatic extract [1836].
He lived 1794 to 1867, studied brain and concluded that cortex acts as one unit, and ablated brain areas to investigate brain function. Cerebellum is for muscle coordination. Medulla is for respiration. Central nervous system has diverse and localized psychological functions.
He lived 1792 to 1876 and discovered ovum in mammals [1826]. Embryos of various vertebrates are similar {Baer laws}.
He lived 1796 to 1874 and developed social and human statistics.
He lived 1795 to 1860 and studied how to induce hypnosis.
He lived 1824 to 1880, developed skull-measuring instruments, and studied prehistoric skull trephining. He first described Cro-Magnon and Aurignacian man. He disproved theory {Celtic myth} that Celts constituted a racial group with inherited characteristics [1866]. Frontal-lobe-third or inferior-gyrus damage {Broca's area, Broca} makes people unable to speak [1861].
He lived 1806 to 1875 and located innervated muscles for behaviors, gestures, and expressions. He studied locomotor ataxia and tried electrical stimulation therapy.
He lived 1844 to 1895 and discovered DNA in trout sperm [1869]. Blood carbon dioxide level regulates breathing.
Fritsch lived 1838 to 1927. Hitzig lived 1838 to 1907. They studied Broca's-area localized motor functions.
He lived 1843 to 1926 and found Golgi cells [1883] and Golgi apparatus [1909]. If silver chromate stains neural tissue, some nerve cells stain black and become visible among unstained, transparent cells [1873].
He lived 1852 to 1934 and studied neurons and brain microscopic structure. Nerve signal goes from neuron axon to next-neuron dendrite.
He lived 1847 to 1929. Cortex association areas myelinate after birth, while sense and motor areas myelinate before birth.
He lived 1857 to 1952, named neuron junctions "synapses", showed that transmission slowed there, and studied antagonistic-muscle reciprocal innervation. He studied peripheral and spinal reflexes, including dog scratch reflex, and relations between reflexes and behavior patterns.
He studied sense exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors. Exteroceptive distance receptors detect movements and are at animal leading edges. Distance receptors receive stimuli far from physical source. Brains can build space-time relations to represent environment. Interoceptive receptors receive stimuli where physical sources contact body surface. Proprioceptive receptors receive stimuli from inside body.
Precurrent receptors initiate behavior, and non-precurrent receptor activity stops behavior. Behavior relies on body hierarchical spatio-temporal subsystems that evolution built and linked for survival. Body-limit perception affects behavior.
Organisms evolved to allow more exploration and autonomy, as distance receptors and brain integration evolved. Organisms had more prey and predator knowledge. Anticipatory responses extended control over space and time, so reaction time increased and immediate receptor responses lasted longer.
He lived 1868 to 1918 and mapped 52 cortical areas [1903 to 1908].
He lived 1876 to 1936 and studied ear labyrinth functions.
He lived 1866 to 1959. He studied polio [1910].
He lived 1876 to 1965 and studied sensation locations and spinal and head injuries. He found Adie's syndrome and Holmes' syndrome [1941], with William Adie.
He lived 1888 to 1947. He studied brain injuries [1917]. Blind patients, with V1 area damage, can consciously perceive fast moving highly contrasting stimuli {Riddoch syndrome}.
He lived 1847 to 1930. Occipital lobes have topological maps [1919]. People can lose ability to calculate but retain other abilities.
He lived 1861 to 1940 and studied cerebral cortex and sensation. Cortical memory stores flexible experience representations {schema, Head}.
He lived 1881 to 1973. Hypothalamic stimulation causes emotions and controls internal organs [1928].
He lived 1871 to 1942 and studied human variation.
He lived 1875 to 1955 and started frontal lobotomy for mental illness [1935].
He lived 1899 to 1972 and studied chimpanzee isocortex. He invented Perceptrons, with Walter H. Pitts. Neuron model sends unit output if input is above threshold. Finite device combinations, including loops, can perform any algorithm. Neural networks can recognize figures, so any input feature from figure produces same output. Reliable neural networks can come from unreliable components using redundancy.
He lived 1903 to 1997 and studied cerebellum [1967]. Connections between sense and motor nerves in spinal-cord gray matter are responsible for reflexes [1951]. Matter and mind are separate substances, and interact in synapses {interactionism, Eccles}. Mind has units {psychon, Eccles}.
He lived 1919 to ?. Human chromosome number is 46, rather than 44 or 48 [1955].
He lived 1924 to 1992 and developed neuron motion-detector models, to explain how flies detect motion.
He lived 1895 to 1966 and studied brain.
He lived 1920 to ?. Axons from frog retinal ganglion cells have four groups that respond differently to different stimuli and that end in four distinct optic-tectum layers, all with same topographic map. Frog is normally motionless, so detectors detect environment changes.
Sustained contrast detectors make immediate and prolonged signals when object edge, either lighter or darker than background, moves into receptive field and stops.
Net convexity detectors make immediate and temporary signals when large dark-object small or convex edges pass through visual field. Smooth movement has less effect than jerky movement.
Moving-edge detectors respond to edges moving through receptive field. Net dimming detectors make immediate and prolonged signals with sudden illumination reduction. Frogs can recognize prey and enemy categories.
Heimer lived 1930 to 2007.
He studied frog-retina bug-detector ganglion cells. Thousands of cardinal cells code percepts [Barlow, 1972] [Barlow, 1995]. Qualia are not basic phenomena but brain-developed sensations that depend on memory and processing. Consciousness comes from social communication.
They studied brain and neural networks.
Szentagothai lived 1912 to 1994.
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He studied vertebrate eye.
He lived 1927 to ?.
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Brain works by selection. 0.5-mm-diameter cortical hexagonal columns and their lateral connections represent symbols. Columns vary, compete, and replicate. Symbols integrate and coordinate to make scenes and help each other compete and copy. Consciousness is image or scene that is most populous {scenario spinning}.
He discovered embryonic stem cells [1998].
Perhaps, consciousness is in anterior cingulate. Consciousness unifies body actions. Perhaps, ability to make new reflexes is consciousness purpose. He developed computer simulations (CyberChild) to find neural correlates of consciousness. It uses mammalian nervous system circuits grouped into binary composite units. It has two senses, hearing and touch. It controls vocalization, feeding, and bladder-control muscles. It has pain receptors for low stomach-milk level, low blood-sugar level, full bladder, and dirty diaper. Emergent behavior, such as ability to make new reflexes, indicates consciousness.
Brain scans associate brain regions with psychological functions.
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Consciousness unifies by integrative processes among brain parts.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225